ABSTRACT
Bangladesh emerged in the Cold War world as an independent, sovereign republic on December 16, 1971, under the politico-military patronage of neighboring India, which played a pivotal role in its liberation. Bangladesh and India have built a special relationship rooted in a common cultural heritage, principles and values, forged by shared aspirations and sacrifices of its people. Their relationship has suffered cyclical phases of highs and lows, largely reflecting the changing governments both in Dhaka and New Delhi. Bangladesh’s foreign policy choices have been cautious and measured. It is, at times, hesitant and finds it uncomfortable to function under a bilateral parameter as it prefers multilateral arrangements. India has been constrained to singlehandedly take the relationship forward because Bangladesh views bilateral ties through the prism of a younger brother that expects the bigger brother to do more. For its part, India has been circumspect in its reactions to various statements that emanate from Dhaka. This article examines the positive engagement between the two countries since 2007, and the pending issues such as sharing the waters of the Teesta River, and the killings on the India-Bangladesh border. Out of the box agreements are certainly required to resolve the remaining bilateral issues in a timely manner.
Keywords: Mukti Bahini, Liberation War, Teesta water sharing, border haats, Land Boundary Agreement, Bango Sagar Exercise
Bangladesh emerged as a free and sovereign nation on December 16, 1971, under the politico-military patronage of India during the Cold War, setting the stage for India-Bangladesh relations to move forward. India’s pivotal role in the country’s freedom struggle and liberation contributed to a warm start in their relationship.[1] Throughout the war, India proved to be the strongest and closest ally of Bangladesh, along with the Soviet Union, Japan, and some Western countries. The crisis started when the state of West Pakistan escalated atrocities in East Pakistan in March 1971 to stamp out a Bengali nationalist movement. The killings soon became a genocide, but instead of crushing the indigenous movement, the Bengalis rose up and built a strong liberation force, backed by India that had feared the spill over of refugees across its own borders. The Pakistan military’s genocidal practices resulted in the killing of an estimated three million people.[2] In these volatile conditions, the indigenous Mukti Bahini fighters, and Indian military forces, attacked the Pakistani military across East Pakistan What had been a regional crisis soon took on global dimensions in early-December 1971 when the Soviet Union accused the United States of practicing “gunboat diplomacy” and “gross blackmail” against India by moving a U.S. naval squadron to the Indian Ocean from the Gulf of Tonkin. Moscow vetoed a U.S. resolution in the Security Council calling for an immediate ceasefire and withdrawal of Indian and Pakistani military forces to their own side of the border.[3] In just nine days, there were three Soviet vetoes of such a resolution, with eleven council member states voting for it, Britain and France abstaining, and Poland joining the Soviet Union in its opposition. The vetoes were significant as they enabled the rapid advance of the Mukti Bahini and the Indian military, with the Indian Army Chief, General Sam Manekshaw, appealing to the Pakistani Army generals in East Pakistan to surrender because “your garrisons are now within the range of my artillery.” The Pakistan military capitulated, and the indigenous liberation leaders soon created the new state of Bangladesh. India had earned the friendship of Bangladesh by taking concrete steps: sheltering about ten million refugees from Bangladesh, hosting the Bangladesh government-in-exile, and taking part in the 1971 war.[4]
India-Bangladesh relations began on a positive note as India was one of the first countries to recognize Bangladesh and establish diplomatic relations.[5] Rooted in a common cultural heritage, shared principles and values forged by common aspirations and sacrifices of its peoples, India and Bangladesh were uniquely bonded in a special relationship. India was ready to walk the extra mile to strengthen bridges of friendship and create new opportunities for the growth, security and well-being of neighbors, both bilaterally, and through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) mechanism. India believed that such an approach could provide a broad framework for each of its neighbors to complement their own national priorities.[6]
In the internal politics of Bangladesh, India is a significant factor. The depth of the relationship with India has become a cliché to define the ‘independence’ of Bangladesh. Consequently, the insecurities relating to strategic and politico-economic spheres dragged India into a political rivalry between the two dominant political parties—the Awami League (AL) and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP). The overwhelming domestic political compulsions in Bangladesh have severely restricted India-Bangladesh relations, making both countries extremely cautious about dealing with each other. Extreme cautiousness especially in Bangladesh’s approach to bilateral issues with India has resulted in sluggish progress on bilateral issues.[7] Hence, the relationship has suffered cyclic phases of highs and lows, largely reflecting the changing governments both in Dhaka and New Delhi.
The bilateral relationship carries the baggage of many ideological issues characterized by political misunderstanding and a perceived sense of economic dominance. The question that has puzzled policymakers and analysts in both the countries is why a bond that was marked by euphoria over India’s role in the Liberation War has been one of the more difficult relationships that New Delhi has with its South Asian neighbors. From an Indian point of view, there is a historic sense of hurt and betrayal. On the one hand, even though it played a critical role in the creation of Bangladesh, it is primarily seen as a threat. On the other hand, India’s sheer size, its economic potential, and its ability to intervene are seen by many in Bangladesh with apprehension. Bangladesh’s foreign policy has been shaped by an extreme sense of distrust, insecurity, and perceived domination of India.[8]
Bangladesh’s foreign policy choices have been cautious and measured. It is hesitant and finds it uncomfortable to function under a bilateral parameter. Bangladesh has argued for multilateral arrangements because it has not been able to get the maximum benefit from agreements on trade, export of gas, provision of transit routes through rail, road, inland waterways, and sea, or on pending water-sharing issues. A divided polity, polarized on ideological lines, and an extremely sensitive political atmosphere has subjected the India-Bangladesh relationship to the domestic political dynamics of the two parties of Bangladesh, the AL and BNP. India has been constrained to singlehandedly take the relationship forward because Bangladesh views bilateral ties through the prism of a younger brother that expects the bigger brother to do more. But India has been circumspect in its reaction to various statements that emanate from Dhaka.[9] The five years of BNP-coalition government (2001-06) were rated as the ‘worst phase’ in India-Bangladesh relations.[10]
Since 2007, there has been positive engagement between the two countries. After the AL assumed power in January 2009, the relationship witnessed a ‘Golden Era.’ Be it India’s ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy or the ‘Act East’ policy, in areas covering connectivity, trade, security or development, Bangladesh is central to India’s regional outlook. Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s two-day visit to Bangladesh in March 2021 coincided with the latter’s golden jubilee celebration of independence, the birth centenary celebration of the iconic Bangladeshi leader Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, as well as fifty years of India-Bangladesh diplomatic ties. It marked a significant change in India-Bangladesh relations.
Remarkably, Prime Minister Modi and the Prime Minister of Bangladesh, Sheikh Hasina, jointly inaugurated the Bangladesh Bhavan at the Visva-Bharati University campus in Santi Niketan in West Bengal on May 25, 2018. The Bangladesh Bhavan, featuring a museum that showcases Rabindranath Tagore’s association with the country, the Liberation War of Bangladesh, and India-Bangla relations, was built at a cost of INR 25 crore, which was provided by the Bangladesh government.[11] Addressing the inaugural ceremony of the Dhaka-sponsored Bangladesh Bhavan, Modi described the current phase of bi-lateral relations as “the golden chapter.”[12]
High Level Visits and Exchanges
Regular exchange of high-level political visits has sustained the momentum to bilateral cooperation. As part of the regular interaction between the two sides, at the invitation of Modi, Sheikh Hasina, paid a state visit to India from April 7-10, 2017, during which thirty-six bilateral documents were concluded in various areas including in civil nuclear energy, space, information technology, defence, and capacity building, and a third Line of Credit (LoC) worth US$ 4.5 billion was extended to Bangladesh.[13]
To further strengthen the relationship, at the invitation of the then Bangladesh Finance Minister, Abul Maal Abdul Muhith, the then Indian Finance Minister, Arun Jaitley, arrived in Dhaka on October 3, 2017, on a three-day official visit. A thirty-member high-level business delegation from the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) accompanied the Indian finance minister.[14] Later, the then Indian External Affairs Minister, Sushma Swaraj, visited Bangladesh from October 22-23, 2017 to attend the fourth Bangladesh-India Joint Consultative Commission (JCC) meeting, when Swaraj and Abul Hassan Mahmood Ali, the foreign minister of Bangladesh, discussed common challenges of terrorism, extremism, and radicalization.[15]
To attend the founding conference of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and Solar Summit, jointly hosted by India and France in New Delhi, Bangladesh President, Mohamad Abdul Hamid, came to India on a five-day official visit on March 8, 2018.[16] During his visit, he also traveled to Guwahati (Assam) and Balat (Meghalaya) where he had lived as a Muktijoddha (Freedom Fighter) during the Liberation War.[17] Further, the sixth Home Minister-level talks between the Bangladesh Home Minister, Asaduzzaman Khan Kamal, and his Indian counterpart, Rajnath Singh, were held in Dhaka on July 15, 2018. During the meeting, security related matters of interest including counter-terrorism, capacity building, and increased cooperation between security agencies on border management, countering fake currency operations, drug and human trafficking, and consular issues were discussed.[18]
Further discussions continued at the fifth meeting of the India-Bangladesh JCC in New Delhi on February 8, 2019, co-chaired by Sushma Swaraj and the Bangladesh Minister for Foreign Affairs, Dr. A. K. Abdul Momen. During the meeting, the ministers discussed a gamut of bilateral issues of mutual interest.[19] Separately, the seventh meeting of the India-Bangladesh Home Minister Level Talks was held in New Delhi, co-chaired by the Indian Home Minister, Amit Shah and his Bangladeshi counterpart, Asaduzzaman Khan on August 7, 2019.[20]
Notably, in order to advance the relationship further, at the invitation of Prime Minister Modi, his Bangladeshi counterpart, Sheikh Hasina, paid an official visit to India on October 5, 2019 during which seven bilateral documents were signed, exchanged, and adopted.[21] Next, the sixth meeting of the India-Bangladesh JCC was held on September 29, 2020 on a virtual platform because of the Covid-19 situation instead of an offline event that Dhaka had been scheduled to host. The JCC was co-chaired by the Bangladesh foreign minister, Abdul Momen, and his Indian counterpart, Dr. Subrahmanyam Jaishankar, who reviewed their bilateral relations and expressed satisfaction over significant progress in the implementation of various decisions taken during the fifth JCC meeting in New Delhi in February 2019.[22]
Once again, Prime Minister Modi and his Bangladeshi counterpart, Sheikh Hasina, held a virtual summit on December 17, 2020. On that occasion, seven Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) and agreements were signed and exchanged: Framework of Understanding (FoU) on Cooperation in the Hydrocarbon Sector; Protocol on Trans-boundary Elephant Conservation; MoU regarding Indian Grant Assistance for Implementation of High Impact Community Development Projects (HICDPs) through Local Bodies and other Public Sector Institutions; MoU on Supply of Equipment and Improvement of Garbage/Solid Waste Disposal Ground at Lamchori Area for Barishal City Corporation; Terms of Reference of India-Bangladesh CEOs’ Forum; MoU between Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Memorial Museum, Dhaka and the National Museum, New Delhi; and MoU on Cooperation in the field of Agriculture.[23]
Once more, at the invitation of Sheikh Hasina, Modi, paid an official visit to Bangladesh from March 26-27, 2021 to join the celebrations of the Golden Jubilee of the Independence of Bangladesh, the Birth Centenary of the Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, and fifty years of the establishment of diplomatic relations between India and Bangladesh. The following bilateral documents were signed and exchanged during the visit: MoU on Cooperation in the Field of Disaster Management, Resilience and Mitigation; MoU between Bangladesh National Cadet Corps (BNCC) and National Cadet Corps of India (INCC); MoU on Establishment of a Framework of Cooperation in the Area of Trade Remedial Measures between Bangladesh and India; Tripartite MoU on Supply of ICT Equipment, Courseware & Reference Books and Training for Bangladesh-Bharot Digital Service and Employment Training (BDSET) Centre; and Tripartite MoU for Establishment of Sports Facilities at Rajshahi College Field and Surrounding Areas.[24]
Further consolidating the excellent bilateral relations between the two countries, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina stated in a message to her Indian counterpart Modi on the occasion of the Republic Day of India on January 26, 2022, that Bangladesh looked forward to working together with India in the next fifty years and beyond towards realizing the shared vision of building a peaceful and prosperous region. On behalf of the government and the people of Bangladesh, Sheikh Hasina extended her warmest wishes and heartiest felicitations to Modi and the people of India, recalling with gratitude the support rendered by the Indian government and the people of India during the Liberation War of 1971 that set the foundation of a unique relationship.[25]
Bilateral Institutional Mechanisms
There are more than sixty bilateral institutional mechanisms between India and Bangladesh in the areas of security, trade and commerce, power and energy, transport and connectivity, science and technology, defence, rivers and maritime affairs, etc.[26] The principal mechanisms are in the following fields.
Political, Defense, and Security Cooperation
The prime ministers of India and Bangladesh meet regularly at the summit level, setting the tone for their foreign ministers, home ministers, and other ministers of both countries to also meet. Of late, during the fifth meeting of the India-Bangladesh JCC, co-chaired by Sushma Swaraj and Abdul Momen in New Delhi on February 8, 2019, three MoUs were signed to further strengthen the existing multifaceted cooperation between the two countries.[27] (1) MoU on mid-career training of 1,800 Bangladesh civil servants, (2) MoU between AYUSH and the Ministry of Health of Bangladesh on cooperation in the field of medicinal plants, (3) MoU between the Anti-Corruption Commission of Bangladesh and the Central Bureau of Investigation of India.
During the seventh meeting of the India-Bangladesh Home Minister Level Talks held in New Delhi on August 7, 2019, the ministers expressed satisfaction that both countries were working closer than ever before in many sectors, including security and border management. They reiterated their commitment to keep the borders friendly, and in this regard appreciated the close co-operation between their forces guarding the borders. The leaders looked forward to enhancing cooperation in simplifying people to people contact and travel for business, health, and tourism, as well as through promoting connectivity.[28]
Afterwards, S. Jaishankar arrived in Dhaka on a day-long visit for talks with Abdul Momen on March 4, 2021. Jaishankar, at a joint press conference with Momen, said, “We are working so hard to expand our relationship in all dimensions, ranging from security, trade, transport and connectivity, culture, people to people ties, energy, joint development of our shared resources and defence. Our comfort levels are now so high that we have shown that there is no issue that we cannot discuss and resolve through amicable dialogue.”[29]
Since the Liberation War of 1971, India and Bangladesh have shared the historical legacy of cooperation in defence. The active engagement on defence encompasses exchanges at the level of the military service chiefs, conduct of the inaugural Annual Defence Dialogue, and service specific staff talks. Various joint exercises of the army (Exercise Sampriti) and navy (Exercise Milan) take place between two countries. Both navies and coast guards exchange goodwill visits of their ships to each other’s ports. Scholarships are given to heirs of Muktijoddhas for higher secondary and undergraduate students every year by the Government of India. Moreover, one hundred Muktijoddha patients have received treatment in various Indian armed forces hospitals every year from 2018. Besides, exchange visits of Bangladesh Muktijoddhas and Indian war veterans take place every year in December to mark Victory Day celebrations in Dhaka and Kolkata.[30]
In 2019, there were significant strides in defence cooperation between India and Bangladesh, including high level exchanges at the level of services chief of the Indian Navy, Bangladesh Navy, and Indian Air Force; conduct of the second annual defence dialogue, the inaugural tri-services staff talks, the service specific talks of Navy and Air Force, and the Director General (DG) level talks between the two Coast Guards, which have contributed to significant improvement in bilateral defence cooperation. In the training domain, both countries have enhanced mutual engagements. Muktijoddha related engagements, annual reciprocal visit of Muktijoddhas and war veterans on the occasion of Victory Day were undertaken in 2019 and scholarships were distributed to the heirs of Muktijoddhas.[31]
Further, high level defence exchanges in the year 2020 included the second edition of the India-Bangladesh ‘Bango Sagar Exercise’ from October 3-5, 2020; the Regional Commanders meeting of Coast Guards on October 19, 2020; and the third Annual Defence Dialogue on November 2, 2020. Moreover, the Indian Army gifted twenty fully trained military horses and ten mine detection dogs to the Bangladesh Army in November 2020. Additionally, the Indian Air Force Chief traveled to Bangladesh on an official visit in February 2021.[32]
Notably, in a significant break from protocol, Indian Defence Minister Rajnath Singh visited the Bangladesh High Commission in Delhi on the occasion of the Armed Forces Day of Bangladesh on November 22, 2021. He was accompanied by the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) Bipin Rawat, Indian Army Chief General M.M. Naravane, Air Chief Marshal Vivek Ram Chaudhari, and Navy Chief Admiral Karambir Singh. In his address, Rajnath congratulated the Armed Forces of Bangladesh on behalf of the Indian Armed Forces and Government of India and wished them the very best in their endeavor towards peace and security.[33]
At the same time, Bangladesh maintains close military ties with China. The two countries had signed a Defense Cooperation Pact in 2002, which also covers weapons production. Bangladesh is China’s second-largest arms buyer after Pakistan. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Bangladesh bought almost 17 percent of all Chinese military exports between 2016 and 2020. A Chinese Company, Vanguard, has reportedly been chosen as a partner for the FM-90 missile maintenance center to be established in Bangladesh. At the moment, Bangladesh’s Air Force, Navy, and Army are all armed with this missile.[34] India, which has had an uneasy relationship with China for decades, has long fretted over Beijing’s military cooperation with Bangladesh.
Bilateral Trade and Investment
As Bangladesh is India’s biggest trading partner in South Asia, the governments of the two countries are making diplomatic efforts to enhance trade and commerce for mutual benefit. Bilateral trade between India and Bangladesh has grown steadily over the last decade. In the fiscal year 2019-20, India’s exports to Bangladesh were US$ 8.2 billion and imports were US$ 1.26 billion.[35] India has provided duty free quota free access to Bangladesh on all tariff lines except tobacco and alcohol under the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) since 2011. As part of new investment in Bangladesh, Prime Minister Modi, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee, and Tripura Chief Minister Biplab Kumar Deb, jointly inaugurated three projects in Bangladesh, via video conference on September 10, 2018.[36]
Once again, Modi and Sheikh Hasina jointly unveiled e-plaques for the ground-breaking ceremony of two projects, via video conference on September 18, 2018. The projects are: (1) India-Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline, and (2) Dhaka-Tongi-Joydebpur Railway Project.[37] Separately, to boost economic opportunities, Bangladesh Commerce Minister Tofail Ahmed met with Indian counterpart Suresh Prabhu at state guesthouse Padma in Dhaka on September 26, 2018, and agreed to sign a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA). The two ministers also discussed Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution (BSTI) certification issues, with India agreeing to accept BSTI certification for six more products. Dhaka invited more Indian investment in Bangladesh and offered special economic zones for Indian investors.[38]
To take cooperation further, a notice was issued on February 15, 2019, inviting Expression of Interest to build an Indian Economic Zone (IEZ) at Mirsarai, Bangladesh. The proposed IEZ covers a land parcel spread over 1,003 acres, located around 70 km from Chittagong, the commercial capital of Bangladesh. Once developed, the social and physical infrastructure of the region would improve significantly.[39] To promote further investment in Bangladesh, Indian Commerce & Industry Minister Piyush Goyal on October 4, 2019, urged Indian industry to be a part of the Bangladesh growth story with greater investment in infrastructure, technology, and energy to help create more balanced trade between the two countries.[40]
In a push to bilateral trade, Indian Ambassador to Bangladesh, Vikram Doraiswami, said at a meeting with the Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FBCCI) President Mohamad Jashim Uddin in Dhaka on January 18, 2022, that India wanted to improve trade and investment relations with Bangladesh in the areas of logistics, food processing, automobiles, and garments. For this, Doraiswami sought the cooperation of the FBCCI. During the meeting, the FBCCI President called for the development of infrastructure on the Indian side of the land ports to increase bilateral trade. The Indian Ambassador said another new gate would soon be opened at Petrapole land port to facilitate the movement of trucks. Development work on other land ports would be undertaken if those ports were permitted to trade more goods, he assured.[41]
In order to enhance cross-border trade, Bangladesh Commerce Minister Tipu Munshi and India’s Tripura state Chief Minister Biplab Kumar Deb jointly laid the foundation stone of the Kamalpur-Kurmaghat border haat on February 3, 2022. Speaking at the program, Munshi promised to increase the number of items to be sold at the border haats in order to make it more attractive for the people living near the border. Bangladesh Member of Parliament Mohamad Abdus Shahid and Indian envoy to Bangladesh Doraiswami were also present at the occasion.[42] However, there is a need to put in place appropriate infrastructure. To facilitate the movement of people and operation of the border haats, the two governments have to build the necessary infrastructure including roads leading to the site of the border haats.
India-Bangladesh Bilateral Trade (in INR crore)
|
|
Exports
|
Imports
|
Total
|
|
2014-15
|
6451.48
|
621.37
|
7072.85
|
|
2015-16
|
6034.96
|
727.15
|
6762.1
|
|
2016-17
|
6820.13
|
701.68
|
7521.82
|
|
2017-18
|
8614.52
|
685.65
|
9300.17
|
|
2018-19
|
9210.32
|
1044.8
|
10255.12
|
|
2019-20
|
8200.85
|
1264.74
|
9465.6
|
|
2020-21
|
9080.20
|
1064.68
|
1064.68
|
Source: Department of Commerce, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India.
Development Partner
Bangladesh is the biggest development partner of India at the present time, with High Impact Community Development Projects (HICDPs) constituting an active pillar of India’s development assistance. The Government of India has funded sixty-eight HICDPs including construction of student hostels, academic buildings, skill development and training institutes, cultural centers and orphanages in Bangladesh, and another sixteen HICDPs are being implemented.[43]
India has extended a concessional Line of Credit (LoC) to the tune of around US$ 8 billion to Bangladesh, which is the largest recipient of LoC funds from India till date. The first LoC of US$ 1 billion was extended to Bangladesh in 2010 to develop infrastructure projects, mostly in the infrastructure and communications sector. The second LoC of US$ 2 billion was announced during the visit of Prime Minister Modi to Bangladesh in June 2015, and the third LoC was signed during the visit of the Bangladesh Prime Minister to India in April 2017. The third Indian LoC, worth a staggering US$ 4.5 billion, the biggest-ever credit New Delhi has given to any country, will be used to fund 17 major projects in Bangladesh, covering electricity, railroads, roads, and shipping and ports.[44]
In addition to LoC funds, the Government of India also provides financial grant assistance to Bangladesh for projects under the ‘Aid to Bangladesh,’ for projects such as construction of school/college buildings, laboratories, dispensaries, deep tube wells, community centers, and renovation of historical monuments/buildings. At present, three Sustainable Development Projects (SDPs) are being undertaken in the cities of Rajshahi, Khulna and Sylhet. The extended development work of Rabindra Nath Tagore’s ancestral house in Shilaidaha as well as thirty-six community clinics in selected districts of Bangladesh have also being undertaken. One of the biggest projects under Indian grant assistance is the Bangladesh section of the Agartala-Akhaura rail-link.[45]
Further, the Indian High Commission in Dhaka signed three MoUs for new development projects under Indian grant assistance on December 3, 2018. The total cost of these projects was BDT 5.85 crore that would be fully funded by the Government of India.[46] Notably, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and her counterpart, Modi, jointly inaugurated four projects through video conference on March 11, 2019. The four projects inaugurated are for the supply of double decker and single decker airconditioned and non-airconditioned buses and trucks to the Bangladesh Road Transport Corporation (BRTC); thirty-six community clinics in Jamalpur, Sherpur, Habiganj, Sunamganj, and Brahmanbaria; eleven water treatment plants in Pirojpur’s Bhandaria Pouroshova; and extension of National Knowledge Network (NKN) to Bangladesh.[47]
Next, during the 19th India-Bangladesh LoC Review Meeting held in Dhaka on October 27-28, 2021, officials of both countries reviewed the progress of forty-three projects being taken up for implementation under the Government of India’s LoC scheme. At the review meeting, officials expressed satisfaction at the robust cooperation between the two sides in implementing projects, and stated there had been considerable improvement in the speed at which projects were reaching the tendering and execution stage due to the active cooperation of all stakeholders.[48] On February 1, 2022, India announced an INR 300 crore annual budgetary financial assistance to Bangladesh in the 2022-23 fiscal year, up from INR 200 crore in the previous fiscal 2021-22. The announcement was made by Indian Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman while presenting the budget in Parliament.[49]
At the same time, China has stepped up its investments in Bangladesh in an effort to strengthen bilateral ties. China and Bangladesh established diplomatic relations in 1976. Since then, China has invested in, and implemented, a slew of projects in Bangladesh. In 2015, China surpassed India as Bangladesh’s largest trading partner. Ties between Bangladesh and China increased exponentially after Chinese President Xi Jinping visited Dhaka in October 2016. The Chinese president and Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina inked twenty-seven agreements worth billions of dollars, elevating their relationship from a “comprehensive partnership of cooperation” to a “strategic partnership of cooperation.”[50]
Power and Energy Cooperation
One of the defining features of the bilateral relationship is their cooperation in the power sector, with Bangladesh currently importing 1160 MW of power from India. The Joint Working Group (JWG)/Joint Steering Committee (JSC) on power provides an institutional framework to promote bilateral cooperation in cross-border trade of electricity.[51] Major Indian firms such as the Reliance Group, Adani Group, and power behemoth National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) were among the companies presenting investment proposals on April 10, 2017 to supply electricity and enhance power generation in the eastern neighbor.[52] Notably, the Reliance Group was awarded a deal on May 24, 2017, without any tender for setting up a Liquefied Natural Gas-based 750-megawatt power plant at Meghnaghat in Narayanganj.[53]
Further, India began supplying 500 MW electricity to Bangladesh on September 10, 2018, as part of their cooperation in the energy sector. The power transfer from West Bengal’s Baharampur grid to Kushtia’s Bheramara was inaugurated jointly by Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina from Gonobhaban in Dhaka, her Indian counterpart Narendra Modi in New Delhi, and West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee in Kolkata, via videoconference.[54]
Separately, the 17th meeting of the India-Bangladesh JSC on power sector cooperation concluded in Dhaka on August 26, 2019. Briefing media after the meeting, Indian Power Secretary Subhash Garg said that both countries discussed the possibilities of expanding cooperation in transmission and generation of power in the future.[55] Notably, when Sheikh Hasina paid an official visit to India on October 5, 2019, a project on sourcing of bulk Liquified Petroleum Gas from Bangladesh to Tripura was inaugurated.[56] Most recently, Indian officials announced on December 5, 2021 that India would supply 20 percent more power to Bangladesh as the two countries renewed their contract for another five years. Tripura State Electricity Corporation Limited will supply 192 MW power to Bangladesh, an increase from the earlier 160 MW it supplied, under the renewed agreement. For trading power at a mutually agreed price, India and Bangladesh had inked an agreement on January 11, 2010, which was renewed for another five years on March 18, 2016. Most recently, a renewal agreement, signed on December 2, 2021, will be in force till March 16, 2026.[57]
Connectivity
India and Bangladesh have been making strenuous efforts to enhance transport and connectivity. Both governments are adopting various measures to restore the pre-1965 rail links and other connectivity links that existed between the two countries. The movement of goods by road is operationalized through thirty-six functional Land Customs Stations (LCSs) and two Integrated Check Posts (ICPs) along the border. The Protocol on Inland Water Trade and Transit (PIWTT) which has been operational since 1972, permits movement of goods carried on barges/vessels from India through the river systems of Bangladesh on eight specific routes. There are regular bus services between Kolkata-Dhaka, Shillong-Dhaka, Agartala-Kolkata, and Dhaka-Khulna-Kolkata. There are presently around one hundred flights operating weekly between India and Bangladesh connecting various Indian cities like New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai to Dhaka and Chittagong.[58]
After an interval of 43 years, passenger train services resumed between Calcutta (Kolkata) in India and the capital of Bangladesh, Dhaka on April 14, 2008. The train, known as the Maitree Express, travels in both directions, the first service since the 1965 War between India and Pakistan.[59] Nearly ten years after the Kolkata-Dhaka passenger train started, a new train—Bandhan Express—was inaugurated between Kolkata and Khulna in Bangladesh on November 16, 2017, covering a distance of about 172 km. The new service was flagged off by the prime ministers of India and Bangladesh, and the chief minister of West Bengal through video conferencing.[60]
Relations between India and Bangladesh reached another milestone when Prime Minister Modi along with his Bangladeshi counterpart Sheikh Hasina jointly inaugurated the newly restored railway link between Haldibari (India) and Chilahati (Bangladesh) on December 17, 2020. The inauguration of the Haldibari-Chilahati rail link has operationalized five out of six rail links that the leadership on both sides were committed to revive, as well as to operationalize pre-1965 rail links between the two countries. The other four operational rail links between India and Bangladesh are Petrapole (India)-Benapole (Bangladesh), Gede (India)-Darshana (Bangladesh), Singhabad (India)-Rohanpur (Bangladesh), and Radhikapur (India)-Birol (Bangladesh).[61]
Notably, Modi and Sheikh Hasina inaugurated the India-Bangladesh Maitri Setu (Friendship Bridge) over the Feni River at Sabroom in south Tripura on March 9, 2021. The 1.9 km bridge, built by India’s state-owned National Highways and Infrastructure Development Corporation at a cost of INR 133 crore, is expected to position Tripura as a ‘Gateway to the North East’ with access to Chittagong Port of Bangladesh, which is just 80 km from Sabroom. The bridge would also enable south Assam, Manipur, and Mizoram to flourish in trade and tourism, and create opportunities in Bangladesh.[62]
Currently, neither Bangladesh nor India allows each other’s trucks to cross the border to deliver freight—a major impediment to regional connectivity that requires trucks to stop at the border where their cargo is manually transferred to trucks from the other country. Moreover, it is essential to overcome multiple existing problems at the India-Bangladesh ICPs that obstruct smooth connectivity, such as the lack of digitization at both countries’ ICPs, port limits due to a lack of cargo-handling infrastructure, and quarantine restrictions, among others.[63]
Border Management
India and Bangladesh share 4,096.7 km of borders, which is the longest land boundary that India shares with any of its neighbors. The emergence of Bangladesh created a new situation altogether, requiring Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to take a fresh look at the border disputes. Mrs Gandhi entered into an agreement with her Bangladeshi counterpart, Sheikh Mujibur Raman, that led to the signing of the Indo-Bangladesh Agreement in 1974.[64] Since 1975, a bi-annual Director General-level Border Co-ordination conference has been held between the Border Security Force (BSF) and the Border Guard Bangladesh (BGB) to discuss matters of imminent concern. Notably, on June 6, 2015, the two countries signed a historic Land Boundary Agreement (LBA), with Bangladesh and India exchanging 162 adversely-held enclaves (51 Bangladeshi enclaves in India, and 111 Indian enclaves in Bangladesh).[65]
Remarkably, the seventh round of the Home Minister-level meeting in New Delhi on August 7, 2019, agreed to facilitate mutual assistance between the police forces of Bangladesh and India to maintain law and order in both countries. Issues related to effective border management, counterterrorism, capacity building, and increased cooperation between security agencies, as well as countering illegal activities like fake currency, and drugs and human trafficking were discussed at the meeting.[66] Further, at the sixth DG-level talks between the Narcotics Control Departments of Bangladesh and India in Dhaka on October 10, 2019, the two countries agreed to share ‘real-time intelligence information’ and to involve their common neighbor, Myanmar, in the effort stop drug trafficking on their frontiers.[67]
Later, the 51st DG-level talks between the BSF and BGB, held in Guwahati from December 22-26, 2020, concluded with the signing of a Joint Record of Discussions in which both delegations reiterated their commitment to work jointly to ensure peace and tranquility along the border. During the meeting various issues pertaining to the border were resolved through mutual agreement, demonstrating the ease of setting up a conducive environment for smooth functioning of the forces guarding the border.[68] Meanwhile, deaths along the India-Bangladesh border continue to occur many times a year as result of people attempting to illegally cross into India from Bangladesh, cross border firing, and cattle smuggling.
In the backdrop of ‘Mujib Barsho,’ fifty years of the Bangladesh Liberation War, and establishment of diplomatic ties between India and Bangladesh, the 19th Home Secretary-level talks between India and Bangladesh were held virtually on February 27, 2021. Both sides appreciated the cooperation between the two countries and the action taken to address the menace of terrorism and extremism in an effective manner. The effective functioning of the Coordinated Border Management Plan (CBMP) to control illegal cross-border activities was also appreciated by both sides.[69] Madhya Pradesh Police’s Anti-Terror Squad (ATS) claimed on March 23, 2022 that the Bangladesh-based proscribed terror outfit, Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen (JMB), which carried out synchronized blasts across the country on August 17, 2005, killing three and injuring more than 100 people, now possibly has operatives or sleeper cells in 8 to 10 Indian states.[70]
Sharing of River Waters
India and Bangladesh share fifty-four common rivers, a vast riverine system that has been studied by a bilateral Joint Rivers Commission (JRC), working since June 1972 to maintain liaison between the two countries to maximize benefit from the waters. Apart from the meetings of the JRC, JRC Technical level meetings are held regularly. The Ganga Waters Treaty signed in 1996 to share the water of the River Ganga during the lean season (January 1-May 31) is working satisfactorily. Regular meetings of the Joint Committee on Sharing of Ganga Waters are held to take stock of the implementation of the provisions of the treaty.[71]
Following a Water Secretary-level meeting on August 8, 2019, the two countries agreed to work on water sharing and basin management of eight common rivers, such as Manu, Muhuri, Khowai, Feni, Gumti, Dharla, Dudhkumar, and Teesta rivers.[72] Thus, the two countries signed a MoU on October 5, 2019, allowing India to withdraw water from the Feni River on humanitarian grounds. India, under the MoU, would withdraw 1.82 cusec of water from the Feni River to supply drinking water to the people of Sabroom town of Tripura.[73]
As both countries are working on water sharing deal, at a virtual technical committee meeting on January 6, 2021, India and Bangladesh agreed to share data of water use or withdrawal from six common rivers: Manu, Muhuri, Khowai, Gumti, Dharla, and Dudhkumar.[74] Remarkably, during Prime Minister Modi’s visit to Bangladesh in March 2021 at the invitation of his Bangladeshi counterpart, the two prime ministers directed their respective Ministries of Water Resources to work towards an early conclusion of the Framework of Interim Agreement on sharing of waters of six common rivers, namely, Manu, Muhuri, Khowai, Gumti, Dharla, and Dudhkumar.[75]
The sharing of the waters of the River Teesta has been a long-standing demand of Bangladesh since the livelihood of millions of people is attached to the river. In 2011, India agreed to share 37.5 percent of Teesta waters while retaining 42.5 percent of the waters during the lean season between December and March. However, the deal never went through due to resistance from West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee who strongly opposed the treaty. Since Bangladesh is a lower riparian country, it is naturally sensitive about transboundary river issues, and the sharing of the Teesta waters currently holds the key to improved India-Bangladesh relations.[76]
Training and Capacity-Building
Human resource development is a key component of India’s cooperation effort in Bangladesh through its several ongoing training programs and scholarships. A number of training courses are being conducted for interested Bangladesh officials/nationals such as personnel of administration, police, judiciary, fire-fighters, narcotic officials, nuclear scientists, and teachers, etc. A bilateral MoU on ‘Training and Capacity Building of Bangladesh Judicial Officers in India’ was concluded during the visit of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina to India in April 2017.[77]
Bangladesh is also an important Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) partner country, and around eight hundred participants from Bangladesh undergo training courses under the ITEC program annually. More than four thousand young Bangladeshi professionals have undergone specialized short and medium-term courses in India under the ITEC programme since 2007. Of late, the High Commission of India celebrated the 57th ITEC Day in Dhaka on September 16, 2021, attended by around 100 ITEC alumni from all walks of life and distinguished guests.[78]
In addition, two hundred scholarships are granted by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) every year to meritorious students from Bangladesh to pursue courses in India at the undergraduate, post-graduate and PhD level, except in medicine. Over 3,500 ICCR Scholarships have been granted to Bangladeshi nationals by the Government of India till date.[79] As part of its soft power outreach, India believes that in order to build strong relationships with neighboring countries, people to people contact should be strengthened through education and culture. The Government of India has, therefore, introduced scholarship schemes for the upliftment of Bangladeshis and to bolster cultural and academic relations.
Consular Services
The Indian High Commission in Dhaka and two Assistant High Commissions in Chittagong and Rajshahi together issue more Indian visas than any other Indian Mission. In 2019, the number of visas issued to Bangladeshi citizens crossed the 1.6 million-mark.[80] To meet the rising demand for Indian visas, an integrated state-of-the-art Indian Visa Application Centre (IVAC), was inaugurated on July 15, 2018 in Dhaka. Apart from this, there are fourteen more IVACs across Bangladesh in Chittagong, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rangpur, Barisal, Jessore, Thakurgaon, Bogura, Cumilla, Noakhali, Brahmanbaria, and Satkhira to cater to the Indian visa requirements of Bangladesh nationals.[81]
IVAC processes around 500,000 visa applications of Bangladeshi passport holders a year, which, by far, could perhaps be the largest number by any visa processing agency worldwide.[82] Further, in a major development in the Indian visa system, India eased visa rules for ailing Bangladeshi visitors on October 9, 2019. Bangladeshi nationals who visit India on valid visas and fall ill during their stay in India are not required to convert their primary visas into medical ones for getting admitted to Indian hospitals.[83]
A consular-level dialogue was instituted in 2017 to discuss issues related to consular and visa issues. Lately, the 2nd India-Bangladesh Consular Dialogue was held on January 28, 2021, in New Delhi, when the two sides had wide-ranging discussions on mechanisms to strengthen coordination and cooperation on consular issues. These included finalization of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for consular access, verification of nationality, and release of detainees, particularly early release of detained fishermen. It was agreed that implementation of provisions under the Revised Travel Arrangements (2018) relating to tourist, student, and business visas, and further liberalization of visa formalities and entry and exit norms, would further enhance ease of travel. Both sides welcomed the close cooperation between their agencies to deal with terrorism and cross-boundary crimes and on legal assistance.[84] The potential of tourism is immense as Bangladesh receives the majority of its international tourists from India. While India does not charge visa fee from Bangladesh nationals, the Bangladesh visa is not exactly free for Indians. The fee differs from case to case and is decided by the concerned authorities.
Cultural Exchanges
Cultural exchanges form an important bond of friendship between the people of India and Bangladesh owing to the shared history and commonality of language. Special emphasis has been laid on promotion of exchanges in the fields of music, theatre, art, painting, books, and culture. A bilateral Cultural Exchange Programme (CEP) signed between the two countries on December 30, 1972 provides the framework for such exchanges. The Indira Gandhi Cultural Centre (IGCC) was inaugurated at Dhaka on March 11, 2010 to promote bilateral cultural linkages between the two countries by organizing cultural programs, cultural seminars, workshops and training, engaging India-based trainers for Yoga, Hindi, Indian classical vocal music, and Indian dance such as Kathak and Manipuri. [85] It also engages high calibre professionals from Bangladesh who had their training from Indian masters or in Indian universities.[86] In a historic move, India and Bangladesh agreed to increase mutual cultural exchanges and promote institute-to-institute coordination on September 11, 2012. For this purpose, the two countries agreed on October 5, 2019 to extend the CEP for the years 2020-2022. Both parties were expected to exchange the visits of up to twenty scholars or academicians in the field of art, culture, and literature for a period of two weeks during the validity of the program.[87] The IGCC’s programs have become popular in Bangladesh due to a shared culture and history, and a profusion of cultural collaboration possibilities.
Significantly, during Indian Prime Minister Modi’s visit to Bangladesh from March 26-27, 2021, both sides reiterated the desire to continue regular exchanges to promote culture, education, science and technology, youth and sports, and mass media.[88] Further, the fifth Bangladesh-India Cultural meet kicked off on February 26, 2022, with a colorful civic reception given to the visiting guests from India and dignitaries in Rajshahi city. The cultural meet celebrated the birth centenary of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the golden jubilee of the liberation of Bangladesh, and the 50th year of Bangladesh-India Friendship. Speaking on the occasion, Bangladesh Agriculture Minister Abdur Razzak said that India is Bangladesh’s closest neighbor, and that cultural fairs helped in bringing the people of the two countries together.[89]
Pending Issues
There are no major issues pending between India and Bangladesh, as Indian Foreign Secretary Harsh Vardhan Shringla stated after a meeting with his Bangladeshi counterpart, Masud Bin Momen, on December 7, 2021: “We discussed the issues and found that there were no major differences.”[90]However, at present, sharing the waters of the Teesta River is perhaps the most contentious issue between two friendly neighbors. The delay in signing the Teesta River water sharing agreement with India is a very emotive issue in Bangladesh. The Teesta deal was set to be signed during the visit of the Indian Prime Minister, Manmohan Singh, to Bangladesh in September 2011, but was postponed at the last minute due to objections by West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee, who had also dropped out of the prime ministerial delegation. Bangladesh wants equitable distribution of Teesta River water with India on the lines of the Ganga Water Treaty of 1996, but so far nothing has materialized. Ruling out sharing Teesta waters with Bangladesh, West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee said on May 9, 2017, “The Teesta does not have water to be shared. We can give water from the rivers where it is available.”[91]
Another issue between the two countries are the killings on the India-Bangladesh border. According to Bangladesh Human Rights organisations Ain o Salish Kendra and Odhikar at least 1,236 Bangladeshis were killed and 1,145 others were injured in shooting incidents by the BSF between 2000 and 2020. Eighteen Bangladesh nationals were killed by the BSF in 2021 alone.[92] Expressing displeasure on the issue, Bangladesh Foreign Minister A.K. Abdul Momen stated on November 14, 2021, “Border killings are a shame for India. It has been decided between the two countries that no lethal weapons will be used on the border. No shots will be fired. But it is happening. So, it is a shame for them. And sadly, we are losing our lives.”[93] On the other hand, according to Indian authorities, the BSF had killed in self-defence. Smuggling of cattle, Phensedyl, drugs, and illegal weapons are rampant across the India-Bangladesh border. Smuggling operations generally occur in the dead of night when BSF jawans have to confront gangs of smugglers in border villages who come armed with country weapons, sickles, bombs, and even high beam torches. According to BSF data, the number of BSF soldiers injured at the border has been rising: 937 soldiers injured in 2017; 1,274 in 2018; and 2,014 in 2019.[94]
Conclusion
India and Bangladesh share a unique bond and a special relationship bound by common cultural heritage, shared principles and values, and hopes for a bright new future. This relationship has been forged by common aspirations and sacrifices. To carry forward the mission of strengthening the historic bonds between the two countries, exchanges of high-level visits in recent times have added a new momentum to bilateral relations that have entered a new phase, based on a pragmatic and practical approach which reaffirms the mutual commitment to sovereignty, equality, friendship, trust and understanding.
India-Bangladesh relations have, however, gone through many ups and downs in the past, and there are still some areas of contention which arise. India, as an emerging regional power, has the responsibility to understand and respect the sensitivity of a small neighbor such as Bangladesh. And it needs to take the initiative to settle the bilateral issues with sensitivity and commonsense. Although there is a small group of anti-India elements in Bangladesh, it is undeniable that there is also tremendous goodwill in Bangladesh for the people of India. There is no valid reason why relations cannot be friendly between the two neighbors.
Fortunately, since 2007, there has been fruitful engagement between the two countries. In a positive sign, bilateral relations entered their “golden era” after the AL assumed power in January 2009, with the potential to scale greater heights. The exchanges at the highest levels have publicized a vision of an equal and mutually beneficial bilateral relationship to a wide cross-section of Indians and Bangladeshis. It is essential for both countries to develop and nurture a comprehensive partnership.
Binodkumar Singh is Guest Faculty at the Department of National Security Studies, Manipur University. Earlier, he was a Research Associate at the Institute for Conflict Management in New Delhi. He holds a PhD in the topic, “Indo-Bangladesh Relations: Their Impact on the Security of the North East,” from the Department of Defence and National Security Studies at Punjab University, Chandigarh. He has written more than 140 online articles in the South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP), a project of the Institute for Conflict Management, focusing on Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan and Pakistan. He has published four articles in refereed journals, and six chapters in edited books. His articles are: “Taliban vs Islamic State in Afghanistan—A Turf War,” Journal of Himalayan Research and Cultural Foundation; “Islamic Fundamentalism in Bangladesh,” Journal of Himalayan Research and Cultural Foundation; “Insurgency in North Eastern Region (NER) of India—The Role of Bangladesh,” Foreign Policy Research Centre Journal; and “Illegal Migration from Bangladesh—Its Impact on India’s Security,” Research Journal Social Sciences. His book chapters are: “Nepal’s Relations with India,” in Mohan Krishna Shrestha, Pramod Jaiswal and Mitra Bandhu Poudel (eds.), Nepal’s Foreign Policy and Emerging Global Trends (G.B. Books, New Delhi, 2020); “Insurgency in North East India,” in Pramod Jaiswal (ed.), Emerging Conflicts and Regional Security in South Asia (Adroit Publishers, New Delhi, 2019); “Dynamics of Nepal-India Relations,” in Pramod Jaiswal (ed.), Nepal and Great Powers (Synergy Books, New Delhi, 2019); “Migration and Gender in South Asia,” in Pramod Jaiswal (ed.), Migration and Human Security in South Asia (Adroit Publishers, New Delhi, 2018); “Indo–Bangladesh Relations: Scaling New Heights,” in Roshan Khanijo and Anurag Tripathi (eds.), India and its Emerging Foreign Policy Challenges (Vij Books, New Delhi, 2018); and “Dynamics of Nepal-Bangladesh Relations,” in Pramod Jaiswal (ed.), Revisiting Nepal’s Foreign Policy in Contemporary Global Power Structure (G.B. Books, New Delhi, 2017).
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