Rising Asia Journal
Rising Asia Foundation
ISSN 2583-1038
PEER REVIEWED | MULTI-DISCIPLINARY | EASTERN FOCUS
RESEARCH ARTICLE

MUSTAKIM KHAN

University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh

INSIDE THE WORLD’S LARGEST REFUGEE CAMP
Partial Success in Educating Rohingya Children in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

This research article investigates the role of Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) and International Nongovernmental Organizations (INGOs) in providing education to Rohingya children in refugee camp of Cox’s Bazar district of Bangladesh—the largest refugee camp in the world. Through on-the-ground interviews and observation, the author recommends establishing additional Learning Centers, securing funding and human resources, prohibiting child labor through guardian education, ensuring pedagogical duties, addressing begging, and prioritizing health. The study finds examples of both success and partial success in the provision of education to the refugee children, and points to the work remaining to be done.

KEYWORDS
NGOs, I/NGOs, UNICEF, Kutupalong Rohingya camp, Cox’s Bazar, child labor, education

“I lost my right leg, along with my parents, in a bombing back in our village in Myanmar. Now, I find myself begging here. I don’t go to school but I want to attend school like everyone else”
— Aminul, age twelve, at the Rohingya Refugee Camp in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh.

The Rohingya, a perpetually persecuted Muslim ethnic minority in Myanmar’s Rakhine State, formerly known as Arakan State, have faced centuries-long discrimination in a predominantly Buddhist country.[1] The protracted conflict has forcibly displaced them, prompting migration to countries like India, Malaysia, and notably Bangladesh. The Rohingya refugee crisis in Bangladesh, rooted in the minority community’s persecution in Myanmar, has led to a significant influx in Cox’s Bazar district of Bangladesh. Despite substantial challenges, including limited resources and social tensions, Bangladesh’s empathetic response has provided refuge to over 1.2 million Rohingya individuals, demonstrating remarkable humanitarianism and international solidarity during a severe humanitarian crisis. Among the affected Rohingya population, children constitute a significant portion facing numerous challenges, most conspicuously the lack of access to education. Despite the vast numbers, only a fraction of around 27,150 individuals have been officially recognized as refugees by the government of Bangladesh.[2] The rest of the Rohingya people are recognized as “Forcibly Displaced Myanmar Nationals” (FDMNs). The United Nations recognizes this group as Rohingya refugees, aligning with relevant international standards and conventions.[3] By using this terminology, Bangladesh avoids officially conferring refugee status on the Rohingya, which could potentially trigger obligations under international refugee law, including granting certain rights and protections. Additionally, it reflects the government’s stance that the Rohingya crisis is a result of Myanmar’s actions, thereby portraying the Rohingya as victims of forced displacement rather than individuals seeking asylum. This terminology also underscores Bangladesh’s position that the Rohingya situation is a temporary one, pending their repatriation to Myanmar, rather than a long-term resettlement of refugees within its borders.


Figure 1. Rohingya refugee children walking across the camp during the author’s research visit to Rohingya refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar. Photo by Mustakim Khan.

The plight of Rohingya refugee children has become a focal point, compelling International Nongovernmental Organizations and Nongovernmental Organizations (I/NGOs) to take on the crucial role of providing education to them. The study highlights the initiatives of I/NGOs within the Rohingya refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar district of Bangladesh, intending to uncover their success and challenges faced.

The Rohingya have confronted decades of discrimination, denial of citizenship, and political turmoil. In response to the large-scale influx of Rohingya refugees in 2017,  the government of Bangladesh collaborated extensively with a wide range of humanitarian organizations, including national and international NGOs, to address the crisis. By October 31, 2024, official reports from the government and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) documented a total of 1,004,968 Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. Of these, 969,096 were housed in 33 severely overcrowded camps within Cox’s Bazar District. To alleviate the pressure on these camps, approximately 35,890 refugees had been relocated since 2021 to Bhasan Char, an island in Noakhali District, under a government-led initiative aimed at reducing congestion and improving living conditions.[4] This makes the Kutupalong Rohingya camp in Cox’s Bazar the largest refugee camp in the world. It is noteworthy that Bangladesh is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention [5] and the 1967 Protocol,[6] both of which relate to the status of refugees. Despite lacking specific national legislation, the government responded to the Rohingya refugee crisis using letters, directives, and administrative tools.[7] The government’s response is seen in its administration of the Rohingya Refugee Camp in Cox’s Bazar, the largest refugee camp in the world that currently provides shelter for 880,000 Rohingyas, most of which are filled with women, children, and the elderly.[8]

Bangladesh, despite being a significant host to one of the world’s largest refugee populations, notably the Rohingya, has not signed the Refugee Convention, or the Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Person (1954). The factors contributing to this decision are concerns about potential implications for national sovereignty and security, and the strain on already limited resources. Not signing these conventions implies that Bangladesh maintains control over its policies regarding the treatment and status of refugees and stateless persons within its borders.

Bangladesh has, however, signed several Children’s Conventions, demonstrating its commitment to protecting the rights and well-being of children, including the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and other related agreements such as the Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, and the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography.[9] These signings highlight Bangladesh’s recognition of the importance of safeguarding children's rights, even amidst challenges related to refugee crises. Despite not signing certain conventions related to refugees and statelessness, Bangladesh’s overall stance reflects a complex balancing act between humanitarian obligations, national interests, and domestic realities.

In their dire situation, Rohingya children lack access to education, a fundamental right granted under international conventions. Recognized as “Forcibly Displaced Myanmar Nationals” by the Bangladeshi government, they encounter obstacles outlined in the 1951 Refugee Convention.[10]  Different types of I/NGOs are working to provide essential support to the vulnerable children, and their efforts form the basis for this research article. 

Over 116 partners, comprising 10 UN agencies and 106 international and national NGOs, are closely collaborating with the government to assist one million Rohingya refugees and half a million Bangladeshi host communities while awaiting a lasting resolution.[11] In 2020, the United Nations and various humanitarian organizations joined forces to establish the Joint Response Plan (JRP) for the Rohingya Humanitarian Crisis in Bangladesh. Under the JRP, these organizations have been actively addressing the needs of Rohingya refugees residing in camps of Cox’s Bazar. The collaborative effort involves a multitude of international organizations, NGOs, and government agencies working together to provide assistance and support to the Rohingya refugees. The JRP coordinates and streamlines humanitarian assistance efforts to provide essential services such as shelter, food, healthcare, education, and protection to the Rohingya population.


Figure 2. A UNICEF funded school in the Rohingya refugee camp, Cox’s Bazar. Photo by Mustakim Khan. 

Utilizing primary data obtained from questionnaires and interviews with Rohingya children, their guardians, as well as officials from I/NGOs involved in educational efforts, this study explores the fundamental right to education. It examines the operations of I/NGOs schools in conjunction with international conventions and treaties, shedding light on the pressing need to address educational disparities for Rohingya refugee children. The research study investigates the roles of various I/NGOs in educating Rohingya refugee children at the camp, employing quantitative surveys, qualitative interviews, and direct observations to assess enrollment rates, educational outcomes, and psychosocial support measures. Recommendations include the establishment of additional learning centers, increased funding, the eradication of child labor, enhanced teacher training, post-primary education opportunities, logistical support, and addressing health concerns. By merging theoretical frameworks with empirical research, this study offers a comprehensive understanding of the diverse roles played by I/NGOs in empowering Rohingya refugee children through education.

Methodology

This study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative interviews with key stakeholders, including school-going children, teachers, guardians, neighbors, officials overseeing programs, and representatives from I/NGOs. The selection of the refugee camp was based on its status as the largest in the world. Data collection occurred from January 7 to January 21, 2020, involving 80 respondents who answered approximately 64 questions, after obtaining prior permission from them.

Among the respondents were fifty children, twenty parents/guardians, and the remainder were officials directly involved in facilitating education. Conducted through face-to-face interactions, the interviews gathered information orally, with respondents ranging in age from five to forty-five and above. Communication occurred primarily in the Chittagonian language (Chatgaya) for Rohingya children and adults, Bangla for other respondents, and English for interactions with I/NGOs’ officials.


Figure 3. The author conducting interviews with children in the Rohingya refugee camp, Cox’s Bazar. Photo by a Rohingya refugee child.

The study was originally conducted in 2020 and the data was updated in November/December 2024. The long duration of the study remains relevant due to ongoing challenges faced by Rohingya refugee children in accessing education within the camp. While specific circumstances have evolved, underlying issues such as financial constraints, infrastructure limitations, and the need for comprehensive support systems continue to impact educational initiatives. Insights from the study illuminate the complexities of providing education in a refugee camp setting, and they emphasize the necessity of finding sustainable solutions to ensure the education of Rohingya children.

Since the study’s completion, there has been insufficient commitment to the funding landscape and educational programs for Rohingya refugee children. Since 2020, the funding program has been impacted by factors such as changes in donor priorities, shifts in geopolitical dynamics, and a shift in humanitarian needs to other parts of the world. While the funding program has continued, the level of funds raised has fluctuated due to factors like donor contributions, global economic conditions, and competing humanitarian crises.

Table 1. Funds Managed Under the Joint Response Plan for Cox’s Bazar, 2020-2024 (all figures in US dollars) [12]

Year

Education Requirement

Education Funds Received

Percentage of Education Funding Received

Total Requirement

Total Funds Received

Total Funding Shortfall

2020

$69M

$13M

18.8%

$877M

$521.8M

40.5%

2021

$85M

$27M

31.8%

$943M

$678.5M

28.1%

2022

$70.5M

$22.9M

32.6%

$881M

$433.1M

50.8%

2023

$71.2M

$39.1M

54.9%

$808.5M

$330.7M

59.1%

2024

$68.5M

$9.4M

13.8%

$784M

$409.9M

48.1%

Source: Joint Response Plan: Rohingya Humanitarian Crisis, 2020- 2024.

The Joint Response Plan (JRP) for Cox’s Bazar from 2020 to 2024 reveals significant and persistent funding gaps, particularly in the education sector. In 2020, the education requirement was US$69 million, but only US$13 million (18.8 percent) was funded, leading to an overall shortfall of 40.5 percent across the total US$877 million requirement. The following year, education funding improved to 31.8 percent, raising US$27 million of the US$85 million needed, and reducing the overall funding shortfall to 28.1 percent. In 2022, education requirements decreased slightly to US$70.5 million, with only 32.6 percent funded, leading to a 50.8 percent shortfall in total funding across sectors. In 2023, education funding rose to 54.9 percent, the highest over the five-year period, although total funding fell short by 59.1 percent. However, 2024 saw a sharp decline in education funding to 13.8 percent, garnering just US$9.4 million of the US$68.5 million needed, and an overall shortfall of 48.1 percent. This declining trend reflects an increasing funding gap each year, with education consistently underfunded, underscoring the ongoing challenges in meeting the humanitarian needs in Cox’s Bazar.

This research study has produced new data on enrollment rates, learning outcomes, and psychosocial support metrics. Classroom observations and document analyses were conducted to evaluate teaching methods and curricular materials for 2022. The total education requirement from 2020 to 2023 was US$295.7 million in which the total requirement for the Rohingya refugees in Cox’s Bazar of the same period was US$3,509.5 million. But the total funded amount was US$1,964.1 million during this period, representing 54.4 percent of the total requirement. A request for US$68.5 million  was made on March 3, 2024 to support the education of Rohingya refugee children in this region. International and non-governmental organizations are actively seeking to secure the highest possible funding for this cause in 2024 from donor organizations, governments, and other funding entities.

 During the interviews, school-going Rohingya children were queried about their highest-class level, class sizes, materials, location, teaching language, girls’ participation, challenges faced, including mental pressure, factors contributing to non-attendance, and child labor, awareness of psychological support, satisfaction with teachers and facilities, and the mental and emotional well-being of the children. The study moreover explored focus areas in the curriculum, teaching subjects, concerns of parents, and individual aspirations.

I/NGOs’ Educational Interventions

Leading humanitarian organizations such as the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF, Save the Children, World Food Programme, CARE International, Oxfam, Mukti Cox’s Bazar, and the International Rescue Committee are actively involved in promoting children’s welfare and education within the refugee camp. The international non-governmental organizations collaborate closely with the Bangladesh government to facilitate schooling for refugee children in the camp. They provide comprehensive support, including educational resources, infrastructure, and psychosocial assistance, ensuring inclusive access to education for all Rohingya children.

Bangladesh, as a signatory to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC, 1989), has taken legislative steps to uphold and promote children’s rights. The country enacted the Children Act 2013 to implement the provisions outlined in the convention.[13] The government of Bangladesh is actively involved in addressing the educational needs and challenges faced by Rohingya refugee children in the camp, collaborating closely with the I/NGOs involved. They work in cooperation to implement educational initiatives, overcome obstacles, and ensure that the children have access to education despite the difficult circumstances of the camp.

According to the UNCRC, UNICEF focuses on several core areas in education, such as ensuring quality education from early childhood to adolescence and catering to the needs of disabled and sidelined children. Their initiatives are derived from standard education systems and upgraded learning methods. Moreover, UNICEF places a strong emphasis on skill improvement and provides essential safeguards for children, especially in emergencies.[14]

For example, I/NGOs play a crucial role in providing essential safeguards for children amidst the ongoing humanitarian emergency. With overcrowded living conditions, limited access to basic services such as food, shelter, adequate sanitation facilities, healthcare, and education, and protection risks such as violence and exploitation, children in the camp face numerous challenges to their safety and well-being. They also focus on implementing protective measures such as establishing safe spaces, ensuring access to education and healthcare, and facilitating family reunification. They aim to promote the rights, dignity, and overall well-being of the children in an emergency context by prioritizing the needs of children in the camp and working to mitigate the risks the children face.

The schooling network within the Rohingya camps in Cox’s Bazar, comprising 33 sub-camps and serving the majority of the refugees, plays a vital role in delivering education to the displaced population. As of October 2023, the adoption of the Myanmar Curriculum from kindergarten to Grade 10 has significantly improved education acceptance, with an attendance rate of 82 percent among boys and girls. Notably, 330,207 children (161,201 girls and 169,006 boys) are receiving quality education through 5,494 learning facilities, meeting 89 percent of the 2023 enrollment target.[15] Alongside the formal curriculum, initiatives such as Early Childhood Development programs, Accelerated Learning Programs, and teacher training in language proficiency and pedagogy have been implemented to enhance educational outcomes.

However, challenges remain, with only 21 percent of adolescent girls enrolled in secondary education due to cultural restrictions, household responsibilities, and insufficient gender-segregated classes. To address these barriers, female-only classes, community-based learning facilities, and other flexible learning arrangements are being prioritized. Efforts are also focused on improving the quality of education, engaging communities through support groups, and conducting regular assessments to monitor progress. Collaboration with local authorities further supports educational opportunities for host community children. Key objectives include ensuring equitable access to education, preserving Myanmar’s cultural heritage, and enhancing disaster preparedness within learning facilities.

This comprehensive approach highlights the commitment of the Government of Bangladesh and its partners to providing inclusive and sustainable education for both Rohingya refugees and the host community.

Despite significant educational advancements, many children remain out of school due to logistical challenges and limited capacity in learning centers. Efforts to boost enrollment include targeted interventions and community engagement initiatives.  In recent years, I/NGOs have actively advocated for an enhanced educational environment, with a particular focus on comparatively older Rohingya refugee children. They have launched the Myanmar Curriculum as a pilot initiative in learning centers within the camp which includes subjects like language skills (Burmese and English), Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, and Religious Studies, aligning with the educational standards in Myanmar. While some believe it fosters a sense of connection to Myanmar and helps in the repatriation process (returning refugees or displaced persons to their home country), others express concern about potential distancing from Bangladeshi culture. However, adaptations are made to accommodate the specific needs and context of Rohingya children in the refugee camps.

These educational efforts are supported by a dedicated team of 1,200 volunteers, committed to teaching and empowering the refugee children in the camps.[16] In January 2020, Bangladesh took a significant step by lifting longstanding restrictions on education for young Rohingya refugees, a move that had been in place for 30 years.[17]  The restrictions on education were originally placed due to government policies in Bangladesh that aimed to limit access to formal education and other rights for Rohingya refugees as part of broader efforts to discourage their settlement and integration within Bangladesh. Moreover, there were concerns about the impact of providing education to Rohingya refugees on local resources and communities. These restrictions stemmed from political, economic, and social factors surrounding the presence of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. The decision to lift the restrictions paved the way for educational initiatives within the refugee camps, with I/NGOs establishing the learning centers that offer daily two-hour lessons covering Life Skills and other subjects, catering to Rohingya children aged four to fourteen.[18] Despite their praiseworthy efforts, challenges persist in the form of inadequate resources and overcrowded camps. Nevertheless, the commitment to providing education serves as a crucial inspiration for the young refugees, offering them an opportunity to learn, grow, and acquire skills for a better future, even amid the harsh conditions they face.

Table 2. Major Courses Being Taught by UNICEF and Other I/NGOs in the Learning Centers

Variables

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Mean

Std.

Deviation

English language

14

17.5

17.5

17.5

 

 

Mathematics

19

23.8

23.8

41.3

 

 

Burmese language

16

20.0

20.0

61.3

 

 

Science

18

22.5

22.5

83.8

 

 

Life Skills

13

16.3

16.3

100.0

 

 

Total

80

100.0

100.0

 

2.96

1.354

Source: Primary data collected by the author from fieldwork in the camps.

Table 2 presents data on the major courses being taught by I/NGOs in the learning centers that provide educational opportunities for Rohingya refugee children situated in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. English language courses are the most prevalent, with 17.5 percent of respondents enrolled in them, reflecting the recognition of English as a global language and the importance of proficiency in it for educational and employment opportunities beyond the refugee camps. Mathematics courses are also well represented, with 23.8 percent of respondents enrolled in them, indicating a recognition of the fundamental importance of mathematics education in fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Burmese language courses, with 20 percent enrollment, demonstrate a commitment to preserving the cultural and linguistic heritage of the Rohingya population while also facilitating communication with the broader Burmese-speaking community. Science courses, with 22.5 percent enrollment, highlight the emphasis on providing a well-rounded education, reflecting the recognition of the importance of scientific literacy in understanding the world and addressing challenges. Life Skills courses, with 16.3 percent enrollment, underscore the recognition of the importance of practical skills and knowledge that are essential for daily life and future success, including topics such as health, hygiene, and social skills. The average number of courses per respondent is approximately 2.96, indicating that, on average, each student is enrolled in just under three courses. This suggests that the educational programs offered by I/NGOs are comprehensive, providing students with a diverse range of learning opportunities.

The I/NGO educational interventions in the Rohingya refugee camp are substantial, encompassing various programs and initiatives aimed at bridging educational gaps and fostering resilience among the children. The organizations’ efforts are evident in the data, with complete agreement among respondents on the significant role of the I/NGOs in motivating children to learn. Educational institutions existing in the camps offer general and religious education in addition to learning centers providing vocational training. The I/NGOs provide comprehensive logistics support, ensuring essential items like books and bags are readily available, and even encouraging attendance by providing regular food items through the UN World Food Programme. The I/NGOs play a vital role in addressing the challenges of lack of space, poverty, and social superstitions hindering education.