RESEARCH ARTICLE

MUSTAKIM KHAN

University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh

INSIDE THE WORLD’S LARGEST REFUGEE CAMP
Partial Success in Educating Rohingya Children in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

This research article investigates the role of Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) and International Nongovernmental Organizations (INGOs) in providing education to Rohingya children in refugee camp of Cox’s Bazar district of Bangladesh—the largest refugee camp in the world. Through on-the-ground interviews and observation, the author recommends establishing additional Learning Centers, securing funding and human resources, prohibiting child labor through guardian education, ensuring pedagogical duties, addressing begging, and prioritizing health. The study finds examples of both success and partial success in the provision of education to the refugee children, and points to the work remaining to be done.

KEYWORDS
NGOs, I/NGOs, UNICEF, Kutupalong Rohingya camp, Cox’s Bazar, child labor, education

“I lost my right leg, along with my parents, in a bombing back in our village in Myanmar. Now, I find myself begging here. I don’t go to school but I want to attend school like everyone else”
— Aminul, age twelve, at the Rohingya Refugee Camp in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh.

The Rohingya, a perpetually persecuted Muslim ethnic minority in Myanmar’s Rakhine State, formerly known as Arakan State, have faced centuries-long discrimination in a predominantly Buddhist country.[1] The protracted conflict has forcibly displaced them, prompting migration to countries like India, Malaysia, and notably Bangladesh. The Rohingya refugee crisis in Bangladesh, rooted in the minority community’s persecution in Myanmar, has led to a significant influx in Cox’s Bazar district of Bangladesh. Despite substantial challenges, including limited resources and social tensions, Bangladesh’s empathetic response has provided refuge to over 1.2 million Rohingya individuals, demonstrating remarkable humanitarianism and international solidarity during a severe humanitarian crisis. Among the affected Rohingya population, children constitute a significant portion facing numerous challenges, most conspicuously the lack of access to education. Despite the vast numbers, only a fraction of around 27,150 individuals have been officially recognized as refugees by the government of Bangladesh.[2] The rest of the Rohingya people are recognized as “Forcibly Displaced Myanmar Nationals” (FDMNs). The United Nations recognizes this group as Rohingya refugees, aligning with relevant international standards and conventions.[3] By using this terminology, Bangladesh avoids officially conferring refugee status on the Rohingya, which could potentially trigger obligations under international refugee law, including granting certain rights and protections. Additionally, it reflects the government’s stance that the Rohingya crisis is a result of Myanmar’s actions, thereby portraying the Rohingya as victims of forced displacement rather than individuals seeking asylum. This terminology also underscores Bangladesh’s position that the Rohingya situation is a temporary one, pending their repatriation to Myanmar, rather than a long-term resettlement of refugees within its borders.

Figure 1. Rohingya refugee children walking across the camp during the author’s research visit to Rohingya refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar. Photo by Mustakim Khan.

The plight of Rohingya refugee children has become a focal point, compelling International Nongovernmental Organizations and Nongovernmental Organizations (I/NGOs) to take on the crucial role of providing education to them. The study highlights the initiatives of I/NGOs within the Rohingya refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar district of Bangladesh, intending to uncover their success and challenges faced.

The Rohingya have confronted decades of discrimination, denial of citizenship, and political turmoil. In response to the large-scale influx of Rohingya refugees in 2017,  the government of Bangladesh collaborated extensively with a wide range of humanitarian organizations, including national and international NGOs, to address the crisis. By October 31, 2024, official reports from the government and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) documented a total of 1,004,968 Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. Of these, 969,096 were housed in 33 severely overcrowded camps within Cox’s Bazar District. To alleviate the pressure on these camps, approximately 35,890 refugees had been relocated since 2021 to Bhasan Char, an island in Noakhali District, under a government-led initiative aimed at reducing congestion and improving living conditions.[4] This makes the Kutupalong Rohingya camp in Cox’s Bazar the largest refugee camp in the world. It is noteworthy that Bangladesh is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention [5] and the 1967 Protocol,[6] both of which relate to the status of refugees. Despite lacking specific national legislation, the government responded to the Rohingya refugee crisis using letters, directives, and administrative tools.[7] The government’s response is seen in its administration of the Rohingya Refugee Camp in Cox’s Bazar, the largest refugee camp in the world that currently provides shelter for 880,000 Rohingyas, most of which are filled with women, children, and the elderly.[8]

Bangladesh, despite being a significant host to one of the world’s largest refugee populations, notably the Rohingya, has not signed the Refugee Convention, or the Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Person (1954). The factors contributing to this decision are concerns about potential implications for national sovereignty and security, and the strain on already limited resources. Not signing these conventions implies that Bangladesh maintains control over its policies regarding the treatment and status of refugees and stateless persons within its borders.

Bangladesh has, however, signed several Children’s Conventions, demonstrating its commitment to protecting the rights and well-being of children, including the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and other related agreements such as the Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, and the Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography.[9] These signings highlight Bangladesh’s recognition of the importance of safeguarding children's rights, even amidst challenges related to refugee crises. Despite not signing certain conventions related to refugees and statelessness, Bangladesh’s overall stance reflects a complex balancing act between humanitarian obligations, national interests, and domestic realities.

In their dire situation, Rohingya children lack access to education, a fundamental right granted under international conventions. Recognized as “Forcibly Displaced Myanmar Nationals” by the Bangladeshi government, they encounter obstacles outlined in the 1951 Refugee Convention.[10]  Different types of I/NGOs are working to provide essential support to the vulnerable children, and their efforts form the basis for this research article. 

Over 116 partners, comprising 10 UN agencies and 106 international and national NGOs, are closely collaborating with the government to assist one million Rohingya refugees and half a million Bangladeshi host communities while awaiting a lasting resolution.[11] In 2020, the United Nations and various humanitarian organizations joined forces to establish the Joint Response Plan (JRP) for the Rohingya Humanitarian Crisis in Bangladesh. Under the JRP, these organizations have been actively addressing the needs of Rohingya refugees residing in camps of Cox’s Bazar. The collaborative effort involves a multitude of international organizations, NGOs, and government agencies working together to provide assistance and support to the Rohingya refugees. The JRP coordinates and streamlines humanitarian assistance efforts to provide essential services such as shelter, food, healthcare, education, and protection to the Rohingya population.

Figure 2. A UNICEF funded school in the Rohingya refugee camp, Cox’s Bazar. Photo by Mustakim Khan. 

Utilizing primary data obtained from questionnaires and interviews with Rohingya children, their guardians, as well as officials from I/NGOs involved in educational efforts, this study explores the fundamental right to education. It examines the operations of I/NGOs schools in conjunction with international conventions and treaties, shedding light on the pressing need to address educational disparities for Rohingya refugee children. The research study investigates the roles of various I/NGOs in educating Rohingya refugee children at the camp, employing quantitative surveys, qualitative interviews, and direct observations to assess enrollment rates, educational outcomes, and psychosocial support measures. Recommendations include the establishment of additional learning centers, increased funding, the eradication of child labor, enhanced teacher training, post-primary education opportunities, logistical support, and addressing health concerns. By merging theoretical frameworks with empirical research, this study offers a comprehensive understanding of the diverse roles played by I/NGOs in empowering Rohingya refugee children through education.

Methodology

This study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative interviews with key stakeholders, including school-going children, teachers, guardians, neighbors, officials overseeing programs, and representatives from I/NGOs. The selection of the refugee camp was based on its status as the largest in the world. Data collection occurred from January 7 to January 21, 2020, involving 80 respondents who answered approximately 64 questions, after obtaining prior permission from them.

Among the respondents were fifty children, twenty parents/guardians, and the remainder were officials directly involved in facilitating education. Conducted through face-to-face interactions, the interviews gathered information orally, with respondents ranging in age from five to forty-five and above. Communication occurred primarily in the Chittagonian language (Chatgaya) for Rohingya children and adults, Bangla for other respondents, and English for interactions with I/NGOs’ officials.

Figure 3. The author conducting interviews with children in the Rohingya refugee camp, Cox’s Bazar. Photo by a Rohingya refugee child.

The study was originally conducted in 2020 and the data was updated in November/December 2024. The long duration of the study remains relevant due to ongoing challenges faced by Rohingya refugee children in accessing education within the camp. While specific circumstances have evolved, underlying issues such as financial constraints, infrastructure limitations, and the need for comprehensive support systems continue to impact educational initiatives. Insights from the study illuminate the complexities of providing education in a refugee camp setting, and they emphasize the necessity of finding sustainable solutions to ensure the education of Rohingya children.

Since the study’s completion, there has been insufficient commitment to the funding landscape and educational programs for Rohingya refugee children. Since 2020, the funding program has been impacted by factors such as changes in donor priorities, shifts in geopolitical dynamics, and a shift in humanitarian needs to other parts of the world. While the funding program has continued, the level of funds raised has fluctuated due to factors like donor contributions, global economic conditions, and competing humanitarian crises.

Table 1. Funds Managed Under the Joint Response Plan for Cox’s Bazar, 2020-2024 (all figures in US dollars) [12]

Year	Education Requirement	Education Funds Received	Percentage of Education Funding Received	Total Requirement	Total Funds Received	Total Funding Shortfall
2020	$69M	$13M	18.8%	$877M	$521.8M	40.5%
2021	$85M	$27M	31.8%	$943M	$678.5M	28.1%
2022	$70.5M	$22.9M	32.6%	$881M	$433.1M	50.8%
2023	$71.2M	$39.1M	54.9%	$808.5M	$330.7M	59.1%
2024	$68.5M	$9.4M	13.8%	$784M	$409.9M	48.1%

Source: Joint Response Plan: Rohingya Humanitarian Crisis, 2020- 2024.

The Joint Response Plan (JRP) for Cox’s Bazar from 2020 to 2024 reveals significant and persistent funding gaps, particularly in the education sector. In 2020, the education requirement was US$69 million, but only US$13 million (18.8 percent) was funded, leading to an overall shortfall of 40.5 percent across the total US$877 million requirement. The following year, education funding improved to 31.8 percent, raising US$27 million of the US$85 million needed, and reducing the overall funding shortfall to 28.1 percent. In 2022, education requirements decreased slightly to US$70.5 million, with only 32.6 percent funded, leading to a 50.8 percent shortfall in total funding across sectors. In 2023, education funding rose to 54.9 percent, the highest over the five-year period, although total funding fell short by 59.1 percent. However, 2024 saw a sharp decline in education funding to 13.8 percent, garnering just US$9.4 million of the US$68.5 million needed, and an overall shortfall of 48.1 percent. This declining trend reflects an increasing funding gap each year, with education consistently underfunded, underscoring the ongoing challenges in meeting the humanitarian needs in Cox’s Bazar.

This research study has produced new data on enrollment rates, learning outcomes, and psychosocial support metrics. Classroom observations and document analyses were conducted to evaluate teaching methods and curricular materials for 2022. The total education requirement from 2020 to 2023 was US$295.7 million in which the total requirement for the Rohingya refugees in Cox’s Bazar of the same period was US$3,509.5 million. But the total funded amount was US$1,964.1 million during this period, representing 54.4 percent of the total requirement. A request for US$68.5 million  was made on March 3, 2024 to support the education of Rohingya refugee children in this region. International and non-governmental organizations are actively seeking to secure the highest possible funding for this cause in 2024 from donor organizations, governments, and other funding entities.

 During the interviews, school-going Rohingya children were queried about their highest-class level, class sizes, materials, location, teaching language, girls’ participation, challenges faced, including mental pressure, factors contributing to non-attendance, and child labor, awareness of psychological support, satisfaction with teachers and facilities, and the mental and emotional well-being of the children. The study moreover explored focus areas in the curriculum, teaching subjects, concerns of parents, and individual aspirations.

I/NGOs’ Educational Interventions

Leading humanitarian organizations such as the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF, Save the Children, World Food Programme, CARE International, Oxfam, Mukti Cox’s Bazar, and the International Rescue Committee are actively involved in promoting children’s welfare and education within the refugee camp. The international non-governmental organizations collaborate closely with the Bangladesh government to facilitate schooling for refugee children in the camp. They provide comprehensive support, including educational resources, infrastructure, and psychosocial assistance, ensuring inclusive access to education for all Rohingya children.

Bangladesh, as a signatory to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC, 1989), has taken legislative steps to uphold and promote children’s rights. The country enacted the Children Act 2013 to implement the provisions outlined in the convention.[13] The government of Bangladesh is actively involved in addressing the educational needs and challenges faced by Rohingya refugee children in the camp, collaborating closely with the I/NGOs involved. They work in cooperation to implement educational initiatives, overcome obstacles, and ensure that the children have access to education despite the difficult circumstances of the camp.

According to the UNCRC, UNICEF focuses on several core areas in education, such as ensuring quality education from early childhood to adolescence and catering to the needs of disabled and sidelined children. Their initiatives are derived from standard education systems and upgraded learning methods. Moreover, UNICEF places a strong emphasis on skill improvement and provides essential safeguards for children, especially in emergencies.[14]

For example, I/NGOs play a crucial role in providing essential safeguards for children amidst the ongoing humanitarian emergency. With overcrowded living conditions, limited access to basic services such as food, shelter, adequate sanitation facilities, healthcare, and education, and protection risks such as violence and exploitation, children in the camp face numerous challenges to their safety and well-being. They also focus on implementing protective measures such as establishing safe spaces, ensuring access to education and healthcare, and facilitating family reunification. They aim to promote the rights, dignity, and overall well-being of the children in an emergency context by prioritizing the needs of children in the camp and working to mitigate the risks the children face.

The schooling network within the Rohingya camps in Cox’s Bazar, comprising 33 sub-camps and serving the majority of the refugees, plays a vital role in delivering education to the displaced population. As of October 2023, the adoption of the Myanmar Curriculum from kindergarten to Grade 10 has significantly improved education acceptance, with an attendance rate of 82 percent among boys and girls. Notably, 330,207 children (161,201 girls and 169,006 boys) are receiving quality education through 5,494 learning facilities, meeting 89 percent of the 2023 enrollment target.[15] Alongside the formal curriculum, initiatives such as Early Childhood Development programs, Accelerated Learning Programs, and teacher training in language proficiency and pedagogy have been implemented to enhance educational outcomes.

However, challenges remain, with only 21 percent of adolescent girls enrolled in secondary education due to cultural restrictions, household responsibilities, and insufficient gender-segregated classes. To address these barriers, female-only classes, community-based learning facilities, and other flexible learning arrangements are being prioritized. Efforts are also focused on improving the quality of education, engaging communities through support groups, and conducting regular assessments to monitor progress. Collaboration with local authorities further supports educational opportunities for host community children. Key objectives include ensuring equitable access to education, preserving Myanmar’s cultural heritage, and enhancing disaster preparedness within learning facilities.

This comprehensive approach highlights the commitment of the Government of Bangladesh and its partners to providing inclusive and sustainable education for both Rohingya refugees and the host community.

Despite significant educational advancements, many children remain out of school due to logistical challenges and limited capacity in learning centers. Efforts to boost enrollment include targeted interventions and community engagement initiatives.  In recent years, I/NGOs have actively advocated for an enhanced educational environment, with a particular focus on comparatively older Rohingya refugee children. They have launched the Myanmar Curriculum as a pilot initiative in learning centers within the camp which includes subjects like language skills (Burmese and English), Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, and Religious Studies, aligning with the educational standards in Myanmar. While some believe it fosters a sense of connection to Myanmar and helps in the repatriation process (returning refugees or displaced persons to their home country), others express concern about potential distancing from Bangladeshi culture. However, adaptations are made to accommodate the specific needs and context of Rohingya children in the refugee camps.

These educational efforts are supported by a dedicated team of 1,200 volunteers, committed to teaching and empowering the refugee children in the camps.[16] In January 2020, Bangladesh took a significant step by lifting longstanding restrictions on education for young Rohingya refugees, a move that had been in place for 30 years.[17]  The restrictions on education were originally placed due to government policies in Bangladesh that aimed to limit access to formal education and other rights for Rohingya refugees as part of broader efforts to discourage their settlement and integration within Bangladesh. Moreover, there were concerns about the impact of providing education to Rohingya refugees on local resources and communities. These restrictions stemmed from political, economic, and social factors surrounding the presence of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh. The decision to lift the restrictions paved the way for educational initiatives within the refugee camps, with I/NGOs establishing the learning centers that offer daily two-hour lessons covering Life Skills and other subjects, catering to Rohingya children aged four to fourteen.[18] Despite their praiseworthy efforts, challenges persist in the form of inadequate resources and overcrowded camps. Nevertheless, the commitment to providing education serves as a crucial inspiration for the young refugees, offering them an opportunity to learn, grow, and acquire skills for a better future, even amid the harsh conditions they face.

Table 2. Major Courses Being Taught by UNICEF and Other I/NGOs in the Learning Centers

Variables	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	Mean	Std. Deviation
English language	14	17.5	17.5	17.5
Mathematics	19	23.8	23.8	41.3
Burmese language	16	20.0	20.0	61.3
Science	18	22.5	22.5	83.8
Life Skills	13	16.3	16.3	100.0
Total	80	100.0	100.0		2.96	1.354

Source: Primary data collected by the author from fieldwork in the camps.

Table 2 presents data on the major courses being taught by I/NGOs in the learning centers that provide educational opportunities for Rohingya refugee children situated in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. English language courses are the most prevalent, with 17.5 percent of respondents enrolled in them, reflecting the recognition of English as a global language and the importance of proficiency in it for educational and employment opportunities beyond the refugee camps. Mathematics courses are also well represented, with 23.8 percent of respondents enrolled in them, indicating a recognition of the fundamental importance of mathematics education in fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Burmese language courses, with 20 percent enrollment, demonstrate a commitment to preserving the cultural and linguistic heritage of the Rohingya population while also facilitating communication with the broader Burmese-speaking community. Science courses, with 22.5 percent enrollment, highlight the emphasis on providing a well-rounded education, reflecting the recognition of the importance of scientific literacy in understanding the world and addressing challenges. Life Skills courses, with 16.3 percent enrollment, underscore the recognition of the importance of practical skills and knowledge that are essential for daily life and future success, including topics such as health, hygiene, and social skills. The average number of courses per respondent is approximately 2.96, indicating that, on average, each student is enrolled in just under three courses. This suggests that the educational programs offered by I/NGOs are comprehensive, providing students with a diverse range of learning opportunities.

The I/NGO educational interventions in the Rohingya refugee camp are substantial, encompassing various programs and initiatives aimed at bridging educational gaps and fostering resilience among the children. The organizations’ efforts are evident in the data, with complete agreement among respondents on the significant role of the I/NGOs in motivating children to learn. Educational institutions existing in the camps offer general and religious education in addition to learning centers providing vocational training. The I/NGOs provide comprehensive logistics support, ensuring essential items like books and bags are readily available, and even encouraging attendance by providing regular food items through the UN World Food Programme. The I/NGOs play a vital role in addressing the challenges of lack of space, poverty, and social superstitions hindering education.

Figure 4. A learning center in the Rohingya refugee camp, Cox’s Bazar. Photo by Mustakim Khan.

To ensure that Rohingya children have access to high-quality education, the I/NGOs collectively initiated efforts within the camps, collaborating with the government of Bangladesh. The organizations were instrumental in establishing and advancing educational projects by contributing significant funding. The precise amount of funding—both allocated and anticipated in the future—depends on particular projects.

Nonetheless, under the Joint Response Plan, the I/NGOs demonstrate a steadfast commitment to enhancing the educational conditions for Rohingya refugee children. The collaborative endeavors of the I/NGOs and the government of Bangladesh demonstrate a shared commitment to tackling the distinct obstacles encountered by the susceptible children.

Table 3: Is the Funding Allocated to Learning Centers by the JRP Sufficient or Not? (Data from January 2020 to December 2020)

Variables	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	Mean	Std. Deviation
Disagree	28	35.0	35.0	35.0
Agree	29	36.3	36.3	71.3
Strongly agree	23	28.8	28.8	100.0
Total	80	100.0	100.0		3.59	1.240

 Source: Primary data was collected by the author during fieldwork in the camps.

The majority of respondents, comprising school-aged children, their parents or guardians, and officials of the learning centers, agreed that the amount of funds were sufficient as allocated to the learning centers by the Joint Response Plan. Specifically, 36.3 percent of respondents agreed, while 28.8 percent strongly agreed that the funding levels were sufficient from January 2020 to December 2020. This suggests that a significant portion, totaling 64.3 percent, held positive perceptions regarding the adequacy of funding, but it is noteworthy that 35 percent of respondents disagreed with this notion. Despite the overall favorable sentiment towards funding sufficiency, the dissenting opinions of a notable minority warrant attention. Further investigation is needed to understand the specific concerns or challenges faced by those who disagreed with the prevailing sentiment. The mean rating for satisfaction with funding adequacy is 3.59, indicating a moderate level of agreement on average among respondents.

From the initial arrival of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh, the Joint Response Plan (JRP) for Rohingya refugees, spearheaded by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the UNHCR, has underscored education as central to its humanitarian mission, prioritizing resilience-building and skill development for Rohingya children. In 2020, the JRP’s educational programs targeted 542,000 children, with 77.8 percent of this group identified to receive support. Funding constraints limited the scope of educational outreach, with only 59.5 percent of the US$1.06 billion required for overall humanitarian support being met.[19] The 2021 JRP expanded to encompass 1.4 million individuals across multiple sectors. However, although the education sector alone needed US$85 million, it received only 31.8 percent (US$27 million), severely limiting its reach in fostering resilience and skills development among refugee children.[20] In 2022, the education sector again faced funding gaps, receiving just 32.6 percent of the required US$70.5 million, despite the JRP’s success in delivering assistance across all sectors to 98.7 percent of the overall population.[21] These shortfalls highlight a persistent need for more funding to fully support educational objectives and community resilience efforts among Rohingya refugees. The challenges observed in 2020–2022 have continued into 2023 and 2024, underscoring the ongoing impact of limited resources on long-term humanitarian goals in this region.

Chart 1. Comparison of Targeted vs. Achieved Service Provisions for Rohingya Refugees Across All Clusters by the JRC between 2023[22] and 2024[23]

Source: “Humanitarian action analysis needs and response,” OCHA, 2023. https://humanitarianaction.info/plan/1143 & “Humanitarian action analysis needs and response,” OCHA, 2024. https://humanitarianaction.info/plan/1162/ge/7284#page-title 

The charts compare targeted versus achieved service provisions for Rohingya refugees across critical sectors, including food, shelter, education, health, and hygiene. Led by the Joint Response Committee (JRC), the study assesses the coverage of refugee needs in each cluster, identifying support gaps where additional resources are needed. In 2023, the Joint Response Plan (JRP) aimed to assist 800,000 refugees, targeting 457,700 individuals and reaching 351,900, achieving a 76.9 percent coverage rate despite funding limitations. By 2024, with reduced estimated requirements for 700,000 people, the JRP targeted 456,700 individuals, achieving 69.1 percent coverage by December. Key partners, including Building Resources Across Communities (BRAC), UNHCR, and WFP (World Food Programme), provided funding to enhance education and community programs, underscoring the ongoing focus on capacity building and service improvement in Cox’s Bazar.

Table 4. Joint Response Plan (JRP) 2024: Partner Appeals and Financial Overview for Cox’s Bazar Education Initiatives[24]

Organization	Funding (USD)
United Nations Agencies
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)	30,129,436
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)	6,328,000
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)	1,200,000
World Food Programme (WFP)	7,500,000
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
Association for Mass Advancement Network (AMAN)	188,809
BRAC	3,890,843
Caritas Bangladesh (Caritas)	273,982
Education Development and Services (EDAS)	723,394
Educo - Fundación Educación y Cooperación (Educo)	578,175
Friends in Village Development Bangladesh (FIVDB)	520,314
Friendship	510,105
International Rescue Committee (IRC)	998,400
Jugantar Samaj Unnayan Sangstha (JSUS)	183,595
Mukti Cox's Bazar (Mukti)	688,554
Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC)	2,788,998
Plan International (Plan)	2,823,474
Prantic Unnayan Society (Prantic)	138,902
Save the Children (SCI)	6,488,662
Sesame Workshop (SW)	414,771
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)	1,922,150
World Vision International (WVI)	163,152
Total Funding for Education	$68,453,716

Source: “Humanitarian action analysis needs and response,” OCHA, 2023.
https://humanitarianaction.info/plan/1143

According to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the Joint Response Plan in 2024 appealed for schooling the Rohingya refugee children. Partner entities, including United Nations Agencies and I/NGOs reached out to donor organizations, governments, and other funding bodies to plead for financial support for humanitarian efforts. There are different entities involved in the effort, such as the UNHCR, and a coalition of NGOs including the Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development (ACTED), ActionAid, Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE), Christian Aid, and others, alongside the UNICEF. Governments of the United States and Norway are also significant funders, along with funding bodies like the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and UNHCR.

The funding requests from United Nations Agencies totaled US$45.1 million for education initiatives in 2024 while various NGOs sought US$23.2 million, bringing the collective appeal for education initiatives in Cox’s Bazar to US$68.4 million. However, the previous year saw only about 41 percent of the targeted funds received. Despite this, there remains optimism about securing additional funding for the year 2024.

Figure 5. Children inside a classroom during interviews conducted in the Rohingya refugee camp, Cox’s Bazar. Photo by Mustakim Khan.

The role of UN agencies in schooling the Rohingya refugee children is significant, as highlighted by the funds requested in the Joint Response Plan for 2024. For example, UNICEF plays a crucial role in providing educational support to Rohingya refugee children. With a substantial funding request of US$30.1 million, UNICEF focuses on delivering essential educational services, including school infrastructure, teaching materials, teacher training, and psychosocial support. In addition, UNHCR appealed for US$6.3 million for education initiatives in 2024, emphasizing the importance of ensuring access to education for displaced Rohingya children, with funding efforts currently underway. UNHCR’s efforts include supporting the establishment and maintenance of schools, providing educational materials, and advocating for the rights of refugee children to quality education. Furthermore, with a funding request of US$1.2 million, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) plays a role in addressing the educational needs of the children, particularly in promoting reproductive health education and gender-sensitive approaches to schooling.[25] Initiatives were launched on March 13, 2024, to address this pressing issue with funding efforts currently underway.

The World Food Programme also contributes significantly to schooling efforts in the Rohingya refugee camps. While primarily known for its food assistance programs, WFP recognizes the importance of education in the overall well-being of refugee populations. They support school feeding programs, which incentivize school attendance and alleviate hunger among students. The WFP also provides logistical support for educational initiatives, ensuring that schools have the necessary resources and supplies. For 2024, the WFP appealed for US$7.5 million for school feeding programs, with funding efforts currently underway. Overall, the UN agencies work together to ensure that refugee children have access to quality education, addressing their holistic needs and promoting their well-being and development within the refugee camps.

Figure 6. A learning center funded by the World Food Programme in the Rohingya refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar. Photo by Mustakim Khan.

Further, Save the Children plays a significant role in providing comprehensive education support to Rohingya children. Their funding supports the establishment of schools, provision of educational materials, teacher training programs, and implementation of child protection and psychosocial support initiatives. Save the Children focuses on ensuring access to quality education for all Rohingya children, including those with disabilities and girls, while also addressing their broader well-being needs. For 2024, Save the Children has appealed for US$6.4 million for their schooling effort, [26] with funding efforts currently underway.

Plan International plays a pivotal role in advocating for inclusive and quality education for Rohingya refugee children residing in Cox’s Bazar. With a strong emphasis on gender equality and inclusion, the organization focuses on various aspects of schooling initiatives. First, Plan International supports the establishment of schools within the Rohingya refugee camps, ensuring that children have access to formal education. It provides comprehensive training programs for teachers working in Rohingya schools, equipping them with the necessary skills and knowledge to deliver quality education effectively. Moreover, Plan International supplies essential educational materials such as textbooks, workbooks, and stationery to support learning in Rohingya schools. Recognizing the trauma and stress experienced by Rohingya children, Plan International implements psychosocial support initiatives to help them cope and thrive in the educational environment. Through active engagement with local communities, the organization addresses cultural barriers to ensure that all children, regardless of gender or ability, have equal access to education opportunities. For 2024, Plan International appealed for US$2.8 million for its schooling effort: funding is ongoing, with funding efforts currently underway. Overall, Plan International contributes significantly to create safe and supportive learning environments where Rohingya refugee children can access quality education and develop essential skills for their future.[27]

Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) focuses on providing holistic education support to Rohingya children, addressing both formal and informal learning needs. Their funding supports school establishment, teacher training programs, provision of educational materials, and community-based education initiatives. NRC also emphasizes the importance of protecting children’s rights and ensuring access to education for the refugee community. For 2024, the Norwegian Refugee Council has appealed for the US$2.7 million.[28]

Building Resources Across Communities (BRAC) is renowned for its extensive experience in education and development programs. Their funding supports the establishment of schools, teacher training, provision of educational materials, and community engagement initiatives. BRAC focuses on creating child-friendly learning environments and promoting active participation in education among Rohingya children. They also emphasize the importance of education in empowering individuals and communities to build better futures. For 2024, the BRAC has appealed for US$3.8 million for its schooling efforts,[29] with funding efforts currently underway.

Figure 7. An NGO office situated the Rohingya refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar, dedicated to serving Rohingya refugee children. Photo by Mustakim Khan.

In 2024, United Nations agencies requested US$45.1 million for education initiatives in Cox’s Bazar, with additional funding requests of US$23.2 million from various NGOs, bringing the total funding appeal for education to US$68.4 million. Despite receiving 41 percent of targeted funds last year, the Joint Response Plan reached only 53 percent funding as of 2024, with US$455.7 million received against an overall appeal of US$852.4 million. Within this, the education sector remains critically underfunded, having received just US$11.3 million of the requested US$68.5 million—representing only 16.48 percent of its target. This shortfall highlights the significant need for additional financial support to meet the educational goals for both refugee and host communities in Cox’s Bazar. [30]

Since most Rohingya refugee children of the camp are traumatized, a variety of psychosocial support services are provided to address their emotional and mental health needs. Trained counselors provide individual and group counseling sessions to help children navigate trauma and stress. Play therapy, art, and expressive therapies offer creative outlets for self-expression and emotional healing. Educational support integrates psychosocial elements into the learning environment, with teacher training and community engagement promoting resilience. Community-based programs and awareness initiatives contribute to a supportive network, aiding children in coping with the challenges of displacement. This comprehensive approach recognizes the importance of addressing the psychological needs of Rohingya children in the context of their unique circumstances.

Table 5. Are Individuals Experiencing Mental Pressure as They Grow Older?

Variables	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	Mean	Std. Deviation
Disagree	29	36.3	36.3	36.3
No comment	1	1.3	1.3	37.5
Agree	32	40.0	40.0	77.5
strongly agree	18	22.5	22.5	100.0
Total	80	100.0	100.0		3.49	1.201

Source: Primary data collected by the author during fieldwork in the camps.

The data (above) presents responses regarding children’s perceptions of growing up with mental pressure. Among the children, 36.3 percent disagreed, 40.0 percent agreed, and 22.5 percent strongly agreed with the notion that they were growing up with mental pressure. A mere 1.3 percent offered no comment. The mean score for these responses is 3.49, with a standard deviation of 1.201, suggesting a moderate level of agreement overall. These findings indicate that a significant portion of the respondents acknowledge experiencing mental pressure as they grow, with varying degrees of intensity among individuals. However, a notable proportion either disagrees or chooses not to comment on the matter, highlighting the diversity of perspectives within the surveyed population regarding this issue.

Figure 8. Rohingya refugee children gather for playtime during interviews conducted in the Rohingya refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar. Photo by a Rohingya refugee child.

The next section investigates the feedback offered by the officials of I/NGOs, guardians of the children, and insights collected from interviews with the children concerning the role of I/NGOs in educating Rohingya refugee children in the camp.

Response of the Children

“School is my haven. Here, I find friends and learn new things every day. I want to become an engineer and build strong homes for families in need.”
— Shahidul, age eleven.

“In school, I feel like I am somebody. I want to become a lawyer and fight for justice for my people.”
— Salma, age nine.

The responses of school-going children in the Rohingya refugee camp provide deep insights into their educational experiences and aspirations. A positive indicator of the children’s commitment to education is the fact that 56.3 percent of them are attending school regularly despite persistent challenges. Notably, 47.5 percent of children say that they aspire to become a teacher, highlighting a profound desire for education-related professions, potentially signaling the value placed on education in their community.

Figure 9. Children going back home from school during interviews conducted in the Rohingya refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar. Photo by Mustakim Khan.

The dynamics between teachers and students present a mixed perspective with 67.5 percent of children stating that teachers are not friendly, contrasting with a significant 66.3 percent expressing happiness in school. This dissension implies that while improvements are needed in certain aspects of the teacher-student relationship, the overall school atmosphere positively influences student well-being. Encouragingly, 53.8 percent of students report no instances of child safeguarding in learning centers, indicating a perceived sense of safety within educational settings. Here, child safeguarding is paramount in the schooling of Rohingya refugee children. It involves implementing measures to protect them from harm, abuse, exploitation, and neglect within the educational setting. This includes creating safe learning environments, implementing policies and procedures to promote child welfare, raising awareness about child rights and protection, providing training for adults working with children, and establishing mechanisms for reporting and responding to concerns of abuse or neglect. These efforts aim to uphold the rights and dignity of Rohingya children, ensuring they can access quality education in a secure and nurturing environment.

Notably, 85 percent of students receiving psychological counseling underscores a commitment to addressing their mental health needs, crucial given their challenging circumstances. The children mentioned that they faced several challenges such as the scarcity of non-food items (faced by 20 percent of students). They also said that these challenges sometimes meant being coerced into labor (28.8 percent), detrimentally impacting their learning experiences.

Moreover, the significant discovery that 68.8 percent of students are satisfied with teachers’ attitudes underscores the positive influence of the learning centers, which indicates that educators’ support and dedication play a pivotal role in overall student satisfaction. The students’ participation in various co-curriculum activities, with reading fables (32.5 percent) and playing (26.3 percent) emerged as the most popular choices, reflecting their diverse engagement in both educational and recreational pursuits. This range of responses underscores the multifaceted nature of their learning experiences and leisure activities, shedding light on both the significant accomplishments and ongoing obstacles encountered by students in their educational journey within the Rohingya refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar.

Table 6.  How Attentive are the Students During Classroom Instruction?

Variables	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	Mean	Std. Deviation
Sometimes	19	23.8	23.8	23.8
Often	30	37.5	37.5	61.3
Always	31	38.8	38.8	100.0
Total	80	100.0	100.0		4.15	0.781

  Source: Primary data collected by the author during fieldwork in the camp.

In the course of the research study, data was collected about the attentiveness of students during classroom instruction. The responses were categorized into “Sometimes,” “Often,” and “Always.” The findings indicate that a significant portion of students reported being attentive either “Often” (37.5 percent) or “Always” (38.8 percent), highlighting a notable level of engagement in classroom activities despite the challenging circumstances. Conversely, a smaller proportion of students reported being attentive “Sometimes” (23.8 percent). On average, the respondents rated their attentiveness at 4.15, with a standard deviation of 0.781, suggesting a relatively consistent level of attentiveness among the surveyed students despite the unique educational context of the refugee camp.

Figure 10. The author interviewing Rohingya refugee children in the Rohingya refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar. Photo by a Rohingya refugee child.

Response of the Guardians

The responses of guardians of the school-aged children regarding schooling in the Rohingya refugee camp of Cox’s Bazar highlight substantial challenges faced by families striving to ensure their children receive an education. Despite 68.8 percent of guardians having school-age family members, a stark reality emerges as only 28 percent of members of Rohingya families attend school, primarily due to a range of formidable obstacles that impede access to education in this marginalized community. A significant challenge stems from the dire socioeconomic conditions experienced by Rohingya families living in the camp. Many families struggle to meet basic needs. This financial burden often forces families to prioritize immediate survival needs over long-term investments in education, leading to low attendance rates among Rohingya children.

Table 7: Are the Guardians interested in sending children to school?

Variables	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	Mean	Std. Deviation
Sometimes	28	35.0	35.0	35.0
Often	30	37.5	37.5	72.5
Always	22	27.5	27.5	100.0
Total	80	100.0	100.0		3.93	0.792

Source: Primary data collected by the author during fieldwork in the camps.

The learning centers in the Rohingya refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar have been constructed using a variety of materials in different sizes to meet the need for educational facilities in these temporary settlements. These materials include bamboo, wood, tin, metal, and steel, each serving specific purposes in the construction process.  These materials are chosen based on their availability, affordability, and suitability for temporary construction in refugee camp settings.

Furthermore, these learning centers are furnished with essential items to support effective education delivery. This includes classroom furniture such as desks, chairs, and tables to facilitate comfortable seating arrangements for students. Whiteboards or blackboards are provided for instructional purposes, allowing teachers to convey lessons effectively. Educational materials such as textbooks, workbooks, and stationery are available to aid learning activities. Teaching aids like posters, charts, and educational toys enhance engagement and understanding among students. Basic infrastructure elements such as lighting, ventilation, and sanitation facilities ensure a conducive and safe learning environment within the centers.

Table 8. Problems facing school-going children

Variables	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	Mean	Std. Deviation
Lack of earning sources	17	21.3	21.3	21.3
Hampering household tasks (While attending school, the children are unable to assist with their parents' household chores)	17	21.3	21.3	42.5
Absence of secondary-level education	24	30.0	30.0	72.5
Carelessness of the teachers	22	27.5	27.5	100.0
Total	80	100.0	100.0		2.64	1.105

Source: Primary data collected by the author during fieldwork in the camp.

Overall, the guardians’ responses emphasize the challenging barriers they encounter in facilitating education for their children, emphasizing the need for comprehensive solutions to address not only access to schooling but also the quality and availability of educational opportunities within the context of the Rohingya refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar.

Response of the Officials

The feedback from officials, derived from survey data, provides comprehensive insights into the dynamics and challenges of education within the Cox’s Bazar Rohingya refugee camp. The officials from whom feedback was recorded are representatives from UNICEF, Save the Children, World Food Programme, CARE International, the International Rescue Committee, key stakeholders like United Nations Agencies and NGOs including the UNHCR, UNFPA, Association for Mass Advancement Network (AMAN), BRAC, Caritas Bangladesh (Caritas), Education Development And Services (EDAS), Educo - Fundación Educación y Cooperación (Educo), Friends in Village Development Bangladesh (FIVDB), Friendship, Jugantar Samaj Unnayan Sangstha (JSUS), Mukti Cox's Bazar (Mukti), Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), Plan International (Plan), Prantic Unnayan Society (Prantic), Save the Children (SCI), Sesame Workshop (SW), UNESCO, and World Vision International (WVI).

Most officials highlighted the notable role played by non-governmental organizations in financing and strengthening learning facilities within the camp. Renowned for prioritizing children’s rights and welfare, UNICEF typically provides a substantial portion of the funding for educational initiatives in the camp. Their contributions encompass school infrastructure development, teacher capacity-building, provision of educational resources, and facilitation of learning programs.

The Challenge of Fundraising

Besides UNICEF, other I/NGOs also play a significant role in funding educational initiatives, frequently partnering with UNICEF and other entities to support education for Rohingya children. Their contributions cover financial support for various aspects such as school construction, teacher salaries, educational materials, and related expenses. Collectively, the contributions of these organizations substantially enhance the overall funding available for education in the refugee camp.

Although the government of Bangladesh occasionally participates, the main responsibility for educational initiatives lies with international agencies and NGOs. These organizations play a crucial role in addressing the educational needs of Rohingya refugees, ensuring access to learning opportunities despite the challenging circumstances within the camp. Since the mass exodus in 2017, the Bangladeshi government, with support from Bangladeshi community organizations, various UN agencies, and international donors, undertook a significant humanitarian effort by providing refuge to persecuted Rohingya people. Their support, including shelter, food, clothing, and basic healthcare, amounted to an estimated US$920.5 million in 2019, signifying a colossal global attempt. Yet the available resources remain vastly insufficient.[31] The JRP has faced other significant challenges from 2020 to 2024, primarily due to persistent funding shortfalls. Although annual funding requirements ranged from US$784 million to US$943 million, the actual funds received only covered 40.5 percent to 71.9 percent of these needs. The funding shortfall peaked at 59.1 percent in 2023, illustrating the increasing difficulties in securing resources for essential services like shelter, food, healthcare, and education. In the education sector, funding requirements varied between US$68.5 million and US$85 million each year, but the available resources fell consistently short, resulting in deficits from 28.1 percent to 59.1 percent. This has adversely affected the quality and accessibility of educational programs aimed at building resilience and skills for Rohingya children. The data underscores an urgent need for enhanced global financial commitment to ensure that the humanitarian and educational needs of the Rohingya community are met effectively amidst ongoing challenges.[32]

Figure 11. Children entering a classroom during interviews conducted in the Rohingya refugee camp, Cox’s Bazar. Photo by Mustakim Khan.

The government of Bangladesh contributes to schooling Rohingya refugee children financially and through other means. Financially, it allocates funds to support education initiatives within the refugee camps, managed by relevant ministries or departments responsible for refugee affairs, education, and humanitarian aid. The Center for Policy Dialogue (CPD), a Bangladeshi think tank, reported that Bangladesh has to spend around US$1.22 billion every year on Rohingya refugees, a number bound to grow with the population, increasing inflation, and the decline in foreign aid.[33] Despite ongoing efforts, challenges persist. In June 2023, the World Food Programme was forced to implement a second cut in food rations for Rohingya refugees due to a funding shortfall of US$56 million. Consequently, the value of rations provided to Rohingya refugees was reduced to US$8 per month or 27 cents per day.[34] The situation remains complex, underscoring the importance of continued support from the international community, NGOs, and the government of Bangladesh to safeguard the well-being and dignity of both Rohingya refugees and local communities. Moreover, the government provides infrastructure support for establishing schools, including allocating land for school buildings, curriculum, rooms, and other necessary facilities. It also plays a crucial role in policy-making and coordination, setting policies related to education for Rohingya refugees, and coordinating efforts among various stakeholders, including international organizations, NGOs, and local authorities. This ensures alignment with national standards and priorities in educational activities. According to UNICEF, the academic year 2023-24 marked the first time when where Rohingya refugee children across all age groups were being educated following the Myanmar curriculum during their residence in Bangladesh. The appeal made by the Joint Response Plan generated a sum of US$29.1 million, representing coverage of 40.9 percent of the total requirements amounting to US$71.2 million for the year 2023.[35]

Apart from the I/NGOs and global donors, individual countries and funding agencies provide financial support for educational endeavors within the refugee camp, while the government of Bangladesh offers essential assistance to facilitate these efforts. These donors include bilateral aid organizations, multilateral development banks, foundations, and other philanthropic entities. Their contributions are directed towards specific projects or programs aimed at improving access to education, enhancing educational quality, or addressing specific needs of Rohingya children within the camp. Moreover, the government supports teacher training and development programs, focusing on teaching methodologies, language instruction, and cultural sensitivity tailored to meet the unique needs of refugee children. It also contributes to developing educational curricula specifically adapted to the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of Rohingya refugee children.

Finally, the government of Bangladesh monitors and evaluates educational programs in refugee camps to ensure quality and identify areas for improvement. However, international organizations, NGOs, and humanitarian agencies bear primary responsibility for funding and implementing education initiatives due to the scale of the crisis. Financial support for education in Cox’s Bazar camp comes from diverse sources, including INGOs, individual government, and international donors, collectively providing Rohingya children access to quality education despite displacement challenges.

Insights into the Educational and Mental Well-being of Rohingya Children

The survey data examines the mental well-being of Rohingya refugee children in Cox’s Bazar refugee camp, revealing significant psychological challenges amidst the camp environment. Despite this, the majority of school-going children demonstrate a strong interest in education, highlighting their resilience.

Figure 12. Children making their way back to the Rohingya refugee camp in Cox’s Bazar. Photo by Mustakim Khan.

The allocation of funds within the refugee camp context is subject to debate, with opinion divided on whether it should directly benefit families or schools. The I/NGOs, government agencies, and community-based organizations play key roles in fund distribution. This underscores the complexity of managing financial support and the importance of equitable resource allocation.

In addition, parental engagement in education varies, emphasizing the need to understand community-specific factors. While most respondents appreciate teachers’ adequacy, there are persistent funding shortages, limited school capacity, and curriculum challenges. Despite obstacles, the curriculum offers a well-rounded education, prioritizing English, Mathematics, Burmese, Life Skills (for levels 1 and 2), and Science (for levels 3 and 4). Teaching is carried out by Bangladeshi teachers from the host community and Burmese language instructors from the Rohingya community. Initially introduced in 2021 for early grades, the curriculum has progressively expanded to include grades 3 to 5. Remarkably, since 2023, the curriculum was extended up to grade 10, substantially enhancing educational prospects for older children as well.[36]

Teachers face numerous challenges, including insufficient funding, shortages of non-food items, limited availability of teachers, the potential for child labor exploitation, and inadequate school capacity. These responses collectively underscore the multifaceted challenges and commendable efforts within the education system of the Rohingya refugee camps. The complexities highlighted in the survey shed light on the ongoing commitment to providing quality education and the need to address diverse issues for the betterment of the educational experience in this challenging context.

Theoretical Explanation of Non-State Actors’ Role in Schooling the Rohingya Refugee Children

A theoretical exploration of the role played by non-state actors in enlightening Rohingya refugee children at Cox’s Bazar refugee camp draws upon several key perspectives within the realm of international relations. While states typically hold sway in global affairs, non-state actors wield substantial influence, particularly in matters of economic and social development. Entities like the United Nations, UNHCR, UNICEF, Save the Children, World Food Programme, CARE International, Oxfam, and the International Rescue Committee, among others, serve as prominent examples.

Non-state actors play a crucial role in ensuring access to education for Rohingya refugee children, stepping in where states fall short in fulfilling their responsibilities. This phenomenon is observable in various humanitarian crises worldwide, such as the Syrian refugee crisis and the Great Lakes refugee crisis. In the case of Rohingya children's education, non-state actors bridge the gaps left by state inadequacies, providing resources, infrastructure, and educational programs. This underscores the significance of collaborative efforts in addressing humanitarian challenges and upholding human rights, transcending traditional state-centric approaches to education provision.

Liberalism, as a theoretical framework in international relations, places significant emphasis on humanitarian aspects, such as cooperation, assistance, and the role of institutions, striving for the betterment of human society. It advocates for the eradication of war, conflict, and various political, economic, and social crises, encouraging states and non-state actors to extend humanitarian aid in times of crisis. Consequently, numerous state and non-state actors remain actively engaged in addressing urgent humanitarian needs worldwide.

As articulated by Weber, “International cooperation is the outcome of the coordination of moral efforts by an international society,” which highlights the collective endeavor of nations and organizations to address humanitarian crises and promote shared values of compassion and assistance on a global scale.[37] This impressive undertaking is approached from a liberal perspective.[38] In collaboration with other organizations, UNICEF is actively promoting non-formal education among Rohingya refugee children in Cox’s Bazar, emphasizing quality education as its top priority. This commitment aligns with Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the UN Convention on the Rights of Children, advocating for equal access to education regardless of race, gender, color, religion, ethnicity, etc. So, the humanitarian role of UNICEF and other I/NGOs is a product of liberalism which believes in helping and cooperating and giving support to vulnerable communities around the world like the Rohingya refugee children.

Under the lens of Regime Theory, the role of I/NGOs in schooling Rohingya refugee children in the Cox’s Bazar Rohingya refugee camp, is paramount in promoting social welfare and prosperity. This theory underscores the implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors’ expectations converge in a given area of international relations, as defined by Krasner (1983).[39] In this context, institutional rules and norms, encompassing both state and non-state actors, guide humanitarian activities aimed at enhancing the well-being of  Rohingya refugee children.

Social Constructivism provides a theoretical framework for understanding the role of non-state actors in educating Rohingya refugee children in the Cox’s Bazar refugee camp. It emphasizes the influence of social norms, values, and principles on global relationships. Within this context, social constructivism sheds light on the complexities of educational access and participation, particularly regarding the education of girls. While some respondents advocate freedom for girls to attend school, others highlight social norms that restrict their access, such as religious dress codes. Non-state actors, including humanitarian organizations like UNICEF and Save the Children, play a crucial role in addressing these social dynamics. Through advocacy and tailored programming, they challenge traditional gender roles and religious norms to create an inclusive educational environment. By recognizing and addressing social constructs, these actors contribute to fostering a more equitable educational environment for all refugee children in Cox’s Bazar camp.

Under the feminist theory lens, the role of non-state actors in schooling Rohingya refugee children in Cox’s Bazar is analyzed through the perspective of gender equality and women’s empowerment. Feminism in International Relations advocates for the empowerment of women in all spheres of society, striving for equal opportunities for women to compete with men (Sargent, 2009).[40] Non-state actors are actively working to ensure equal access to education for all Rohingya refugee children, aligning with feminist principles that prioritize challenging gender norms and promoting gender equality. Survey data suggests significant progress in achieving gender equality in educational participation, with girls participating equally or even more than boys in learning centers. Non-state actors contribute to this progress by implementing inclusive policies and programs that prioritize girls’ education and address gender disparities. By promoting girls’ empowerment and challenging traditional gender roles, they contribute to broader societal transformation.

Overall, their intervention reflects alignment with theoretical perspectives such as liberalism, regime theory, social constructivism, and feminism, emphasizing the importance of addressing humanitarian needs while advancing broader principles of equity and inclusion.

Challenges and Triumphs

Despite worthy efforts, the I/NGOs face numerous of challenges in implementing educational interventions in the Rohingya Refugee Camp. From infrastructural limitations to cultural sensitivities, these obstacles presented significant hurdles. This section explores the details of these challenges, emphasizing how innovative solutions and community involvement played pivotal roles in overcoming these barriers.

Table 9. Challenges of Teaching

Variables	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	Mean	Std. Deviation
Funding	9	11.3	11.3	11.3
Lack of non-food items	16	20.0	20.0	31.3
Number of teachers	15	18.8	18.8	50.0
Child-labor	12	15.0	15.0	65.0
Insufficient school capacity	28	35.0	35.0	100.0
Total	80	100.0	100.0		3.43	1.430

Source: Primary data collected by the author during fieldwork in the camp.

The challenges encompass various aspects, with limited space emerging as a major impediment to providing education to Rohingya refugee children. The camps’ inadequate infrastructure and overcrowding made it challenging to accommodate all the children in formal education settings, impacting their accessibility of quality education. In addition, financial constraints add another layer of difficulty, hampering I/NGOs’ ability to establish and maintain proper learning centers. Insufficient funding has affected the quality of education, teacher training, and the availability of essential learning materials, further complicating the educational landscape. Even the prevalence of child labor, driven by economic hardships faced by families, has presented a persistent challenge. Children are often engaged in labor activities, preventing regular school attendance and hindering efforts to provide a consistent educational experience. Very often guardian awareness posed yet another hurdle, as some guardians did not fully grasp the importance of education. This led to indifference or reluctance to send their children to school, necessitating awareness campaigns to address this critical issue.

Figure 13. A child waits to carry goods for others in the Rohingya refugee camp, Cox’s Bazar. Photo by Mustakim Khan.

The dedication of teachers was commendable, but challenges emerged in terms of their training and accountability. The lack of adequate teacher training prompted the need for continuous professional development and accountability mechanisms to maintain educational standards. Additionally, the uncertain timeline for the repatriation of Rohingya refugees to Myanmar created challenges in long-term planning for their education. This uncertainty influenced decisions regarding the level and scope of education provided, requiring adaptive strategies for sustained educational interventions.  Amid these challenges, INGOs’ educational interventions achieved notable triumphs. Humanitarian organizations successfully established learning centers within the camps, providing essential education to a significant number of Rohingya children. Efforts by various organizations raised awareness about the importance of education among the Rohingya community, potentially leading to higher enrollment rates. The involvement of international organizations signified global recognition of the issue, contributing to the establishment of schools and the provision of essential resources.

Rohingya children have shown remarkable resilience, demonstrating a strong desire to learn and attend school. Collaborative efforts among humanitarian organizations and the government of Bangladesh have resulted in coordinated initiatives to address the educational needs of Rohingya children, enhancing the effectiveness and sustainability of educational programs in the camp. Education has emerged as a powerful tool for empowering Rohingya children with essential skills and knowledge, offering them a pathway to a better future and the opportunity to break the cycle of poverty. While challenges persist, these triumphs reflect ongoing progress and underscore the importance of continued support and collective action to ensure a brighter educational future for the Rohingya community.

Overall, the efforts of I/NGOs in implementing educational interventions for Rohingya children in Cox’s Bazar Refugee camp faces many challenges such as limited infrastructure, overcrowding, and financial constraints, which hinder their ability to provide quality education to all Rohingya children. Insufficient funding impacts the quality of education and teacher training, while the prevalence of child labor and guardians’ lack of awareness further complicated the situation. Despite these obstacles, I/NGOs have succeeded in establishing learning centers and raising awareness about education among the Rohingya community, empowering children with essential skills. Collaborative efforts with the government of Bangladesh have resulted in coordinated initiatives to address educational needs, offering Rohingya children a pathway to a better future despite ongoing challenges.

Impact Assessment

An Impact Assessment of the survey exposes the multifaceted outcomes of I/NGOs’ initiatives in providing education to Rohingya refugee children, drawing insights from both qualitative and quantitative data. The positive impact is evident across various dimensions. Education empowers Rohingya children by imparting essential skills, fostering literacy and numeracy, enhancing communication abilities, and enabling informed decision-making, ultimately contributing meaningfully to society. Beyond academics, schools and learning centers serve as sources of psychosocial support, offering a sense of normalcy, routine, and emotional connections among Rohingya children. Moreover, education promotes social integration, fostering friendships, tolerance, and community spirit through collaborative learning experiences.

Table 10.  Are the Children Receiving Psychological Counseling?

Variables	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent	Mean	Std. Deviation
Yes	68	85.0	85.0	85.0
No	12	15.0	15.0	100.0
Total	80	100.0	100.0		1.15	0.359

Source: Primary data collected by the author during fieldwork in the camp.

Health and hygiene awareness are integral components of educational programs, contributing to improved overall well-being. Educated Rohingya youth emerge as potential future leaders, equipped with critical thinking, leadership skills, and civic engagement capabilities. However, the impact assessment also highlights challenges and areas for improvement. Ensuring the quality of education is paramount, necessitating investments in well-trained teachers, appropriate curricula, and learning materials, alongside regular assessments and monitoring mechanisms. Education’s socio-economic impact is crucial, breaking the cycle of poverty by providing vocational training and life skills education for enhanced employability.

Addressing the trauma experienced by many Rohingya children requires incorporating trauma-informed approaches, including counseling services and psychological support. Promoting gender equality in education is essential, necessitating efforts to ensure equal access and opportunities for girls, addressing cultural barriers, and advocating for girls’ education within Rohingya communities.

Long-term planning and community engagement are vital for sustaining educational initiatives, involving Rohingya community leaders and parents to enhance effectiveness and cultural relevance. Continuous financial and logistical support from the international community is crucial for the longevity and adaptability of educational programs. In conclusion, while providing education to Rohingya refugee children has far-reaching positive impacts, addressing challenges and continuously improving educational programs are essential for maximizing these benefits and creating a brighter future. Ongoing support, collaboration, and innovation remain key to sustaining the positive impact of education on the lives of Rohingya refugee children.

Conclusion

 The educational interventions in Cox’s Bazar’s Rohingya refugee camps highlight both notable achievements and persistent challenges. Despite efforts, only a portion of children can access educational facilities, with 35 percent of respondents identifying insufficient school capacity as the primary obstacle. Economic hardships have resulted in 15 percent of children engaging in child labor, while 20 percent reported a lack of non-food items, and 18.8 percent cited teacher shortages as key barriers to education.   In order to address some of these issues, the schools delivered psychological counseling to 85 percent of the children, demonstrating a commitment to deal with trauma and fostering psychosocial well-being. Learning centers, established by I/NGOs, serve as vital hubs for education and community engagement, though funding constraints continue to affect teacher training and the provision of learning materials.

Moving forward, increased financial and logistical support, long-term planning, and community involvement are critical. Priority must be given to expanding school infrastructure, promoting gender-inclusive education, and integrating trauma-informed approaches. Collaborative efforts from I/NGOs, the government, and the international community are essential to sustain these initiatives and empower Rohingya children with education as a tool for a better future.

Recommendations

This study, having examined the educational challenges faced by Rohingya refugee children in Cox’s Bazar, offers several critical recommendations to enhance the effectiveness of interventions, ensuring sustainable progress. The high demand for education underscores the need for an expansion of learning facilities. With 35 percent of respondents identifying inadequate school capacity as a significant obstacle, it is essential to establish additional schools and upgrade existing infrastructure. Collaborative efforts among the government, the I/NGOs), and international donors are pivotal in achieving these objectives.

The study addresses the 18.8 percent shortage of teachers, recommending the recruitment of qualified educators and the provision of targeted professional development programs. These programs should focus on culturally sensitive pedagogy and trauma-informed teaching strategies tailored to the unique needs of refugee children.

Moreover, the economic hardships faced by refugee families have led to 15 percent of children engaging in labor, further undermining their educational opportunities. Providing livelihood support for these families, coupled with awareness campaigns highlighting the importance of education, can help reduce child labor and improve school attendance rates.

The issue of gender disparity is also significant, with only 21 percent of adolescent girls enrolled in secondary education. Targeted interventions are necessary to eliminate cultural barriers and ensure equitable access to education for girls. Gender-segregated facilities and community-based advocacy campaigns for girls’ education are crucial in addressing these barriers.

Furthermore, it is essential to integrate psychological counseling into the education system, as 85 percent of surveyed children have benefited from such services. This support helps address trauma and fosters resilience among refugee students. Additionally, vocational training programs can provide adolescents with valuable skills, improving their employability and preparing them for future societal integration.

Given the persistent financial constraints, it is critical to secure increased and sustained funding from international donors. A long-term, strategic approach, involving all stakeholders, is necessary to develop adaptive and resilient educational programs that address the evolving needs of Rohingya children.

In conclusion, these recommendations aim to foster inclusive, sustainable, and impactful educational opportunities that enable refugee children to overcome barriers and build a brighter future.

Note on the Author

Mustakim Khan earned a Master of Social Science (MSS) degree from the Department of International Relations at the University of Rajshahi, specializing in the education of Rohingya refugee children. He also holds a Bachelor of Social Science (Honors) from the same university and department. Mustakim was honored with prestigious awards, including the Prime Minister Gold Medal and the Bangabandhu Gold Medal, Agrani Bank in recognition of his outstanding performance, ranking at the top in BSS (Honors) within the department and the entire Faculty of Social Science. His research interests are a wide array of topics, including ideologies, ethnicity, nationalism, refugees, religion, political theories, and political thoughts.

END NOTES

[1] “Who are the Rohingya?” Al Jazeera Staff, Al Jazeera, April 18, 2018, https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2018/4/18/who-are-the-rohingya

[2] “UNHCR The Global Appeal 2008-2009,” UNHCR, December 31, 2009, Page: 229, https://www.unhcr.org/media/unhcr-global-appeal-2008-2009-bangladesh

[3] “2022 Joint Response Plan: Rohingya Humanitarian Crisis (January – December 2022),” United Nations, 2022, page 1, https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/2022-joint-response-plan-rohingya-humanitarian-crisis-january-december-2022

[4] United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Operational Data Portal: Bangladesh, accessed November 17, 2024,  https://data.unhcr.org/en/country/bgd

[5] “United Nations Treaty Collection,” United Nations, Geneva, April, 22, 1954, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetailsII.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=V-2&chapter=5&Temp=mtdsg2&clang=_en

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[7] “Operational Data Portal,” UNHCR, January 31, 2024, https://data.unhcr.org/en/country/bgd

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