ABSTRACT
This study explores the folkloric tales of two different cultures—German fairy tales (märchen) and Kuki tribal tales (thusim), on the premise that comparisons celebrate diversity and lead to the discovery of valuable insights about another culture’s values, beliefs, history, and customs. Fairy tales and tribal tales reveal the gap between truth and falsehood in society. Since these two cultural groups have no known historical connection, comparing their tales can help identify which story elements are unique to each culture—shaped by their specific values and beliefs—and which elements are universal, reflecting shared human experiences across societies. The study also highlights the aspects of indigenous folktales (of cultural minorities) that are often absent or overlooked in the folktales of mainstream cultures. The findings reveal, first, that cultural background significantly influences how individuals interpret stories, shaping their understanding of characters, events, and moral lessons. Second, they highlight the critical role of embedded schematic knowledge—culturally ingrained frameworks and expectations—in aiding story comprehension and meaning-making.
KEYWORDS
Comparative Folklore, Cultural Narratives, German Fairy Tales, Kuki Folktales, Märchen, Thusim
The oral tradition of storytelling, practiced ever since people learned to communicate, has been a predominant form of expression of human emotions, imagination and creativity, its power located in its ability to connect people across time and space, reflecting a shared human experience while also preserving unique cultural identities. There are many types of stories to represent various genres of imaginative ideas: the epic, the poem-story ballad, the fairy tale, and the folk tale. Fairy tales and tribal tales can be understood as an important part of literature and thus represents the culture of a community or a country, serving to entertain, educate and preserve culture, as well as a tool for communication, learning, and entertainment. Beyond entertainment, they serve a dual purpose as vessels of moral instruction and as tools for preserving oral traditions, values, and collective memory.[1]
In Germany, fairy tales (märchen) remain immensely popular, with the Grimm Brothers’ tales still widely read and adapted into films, theater, and television. Meanwhile, in the Kuki world, storytelling continues to thrive as an oral tradition, particularly during festivals, community gatherings, and informal family settings, serving to pass down history, values, and social norms to the younger generations through tribal tales (thusim). In villages, all over the world, the elders of the group passed down stories of ancient lore told to them by their own ancestors. Usually, the first stories children heard were based on their society’s religious and cultural beliefs.
The fairy tale is probably the most reworked and reread genre amongst all literary types, be it for children or adults. The universality stems from its timeless appeal as it adapts to changing cultural norms while retaining its core message of hope and resilience. With moral and philosophical values embedded in fairy tales, there is almost always a conflict between good and evil, virtue and vice, rich and poor, magic and skill, justice and injustice, old and young, and weak and strong. In the end, good, justice, virtue, truth, and strength prevail over their adversaries, the resolution serving to impart a lasting impression on young minds, guiding them toward what to embrace and what to reject in life.
Generally, when we hear or read the phrase “once upon a time,” or “long, long ago,” we immediately and naturally think that we are about to hear a fairy tale.[2] These opening lines are universal markers that trigger a sense of wonder and prepare us to suspend disbelief. We are disposed to listening and reading in a particular way, and register metaphors in our brain so that they make sense, so we can replicate them in our own way and in our own time. When we hear or read Little Red Riding Hood, Cinderella, Hansel and Gretel, Bluebeard, or any of the other putative classical fairy tales, we know immediately what is being implied, even though we may not know the exact, original, or its authentic text. This phenomenon highlights how deeply ingrained fairy tales are in our collective memory. Over time, they have evolved alongside humanity, adapting to social and cultural transformations, almost as if certain fairy tales were stored in our brains and memories, and have evolved as we humans have evolved. But this is not entirely the case, and not all human beings are predisposed and configured to process the fairy tale as if it were innate. Few people would argue, however, that the fairy tale has become a very specific genre in our lives and has inserted itself in inexplicable ways so that many of us try, even without knowing it, to make a fairy tale out of our lives.
A fairy tale, or Märchen in German, is defined as wonder with a strong component and satisfies a number of personal needs, fantasy, and fulfilment. At their core, they address universal human experiences—poverty, sibling relationships, love, loss, and the eternal battle between good and evil. The characters and motifs of fairy tales are simple and real (poverty, sibling love or rivalry) featuring heroes and heroines, wicked stepmothers, fairy godmothers, magical helpers, often talking frogs, foxes, and birds, and prohibitions and the breaking of prohibitions. A tale of some length involving a succession of motifs or episodes, it moves in an unreal world without definite locality or definite creatures and is filled with the marvelous. In this never-never land, humble heroes kill adversaries, attain kingdoms and marry princesses.[3]
Fairy tales take both oral and literary forms, although the oral tradition predates the written, with tales told or enacted dramatically and passed down the generations. Oral storytelling allowed communities to adapt tales to their specific cultural contexts, making them dynamic and fluid. Literary forms, on the other hand, emerged later, with writers documenting and refining these tales. This interplay between oral and literary traditions has resulted in a rich tapestry of narratives that share motifs and plots while reflecting their respective cultural nuances.
The fairy tale is characterized by its forms. There are certain initial formulae such as “once upon a time,” and the end is often formulated as a formula, for example, “... and if you have not died, then you are still alive today.”[4] This formal framing characterizes the fairy tale as possessing a timeless quality, disconnecting the narrative or the plot from specific spaces or times. In them, most of the time the laws of nature and causality that prevail on earth are abolished, for example, it is not uncommon for animals or objects in the fairy tale to be able to speak. This study focuses on the following four themes:
These four elements—animals, the forest, the stepmother, and the theme of good triumphing over evil—have been selected for their recurring presence and symbolic significance in fairy tales. This article will examine each motif in detail, exploring their roles and meanings within German and Kuki fairy tales, and analyzing how they reflect the values and beliefs of the respective cultures.
1. Scope and Objectives
This study offers a comparative perspective of German and Kuki tales. German fairy tales primarily originated in the regions of central and northern Germany, including areas such as Hesse, Lower Saxony, and Westphalia. These tales were largely collected and popularized by the Brothers Grimm, Jacob, and Wilhelm, who began documenting them in the early nineteenth century. Their famous collection, Children’s and Household Tales (Kinder- und Hausmärchen in German, originally published in 1812), preserved stories from rural communities and folk traditions, many of which had been passed down orally for generations.[5] These tales reflect the everyday life, moral values, and social structures of the time, and they have become an integral part of Germany’s cultural heritage. The Kuki people are an ethnic group native to Northeast India, and are one among the numerous tribes inhabiting the region, each tribe with their enchanting folktales and fairy tales. Most tribes’ folktales are passed down through generations, mainly by oral storytelling. In the state of Manipur, located in Northeast India, different kinds of folktales found among various tribes include fairy tales, tall tales, trickster tales, myths, and legends.
The article explores their structural and psychological dimensions to uncover similarities, differences, and cultural significance, while emphasizing their role in preserving traditions and imparting moral lessons. By examining recurring motifs such as trials, magical interventions, familial conflicts, and resolutions, this research article highlights how these elements manifest in each tradition, reflecting universal human experiences alongside culturally specific narratives. The study also investigates the role of fairy tales in shaping moral, emotional, and psychological development, particularly for children, and their continued relevance in contemporary societies. Beyond storytelling, it considers how these tales adapt to changing cultural contexts, maintaining their essence while addressing current societal challenges.
This study deals with the motives of fairytales: their approach in German and Kuki tales, the role of fairy tales in children’s lives, and presents the current overview of the fairy tale, and the psychological meaning of fairy tales. It analyzes the fairy tale from the structural and psychological perspective. As we know, every fairy tale starts with a deficiency or a crisis in an open, or sometimes hidden, form. Fairy tales frequently have a common structure: the action centers around difficulties that need to be overcome.
The aim of this study is to show the differences and similarities of fairy tales. The moral in some fairy tales is told in different ways. Every fairy tale has a certain shape that it follows: although the way they are told varies, they always follow a specific function. Some fairy tales have strong morals so that people can learn better. Through structural and psychological theories one can interpret the deeper levels these fairy tales operate at.
The article uses the theories of Bruno Bettelheim and Vladimir Propp for analysis. Bettelheim’s The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales is one of the most important books in the study of fairy tales that this study employs to focus on the role these tales play in our lives and the lives of children.[6] And it analyzes the form and structure of both German and Kuki tales by focusing on Vladimir Propp’s Morphology of the Folktale to study the basic plot components of these tales in order to identify their simplest irreducible narrative elements.[7] An analysis of these tales reveals both similarities and differences, as every culture or society has its own fairy tales, shaped by its particular historical context. Thus, this genre can be described as a recognizable cultural artifact, reflecting the values and experiences of the people who tell them. Comparisons between fairy tales of different countries and communities are appropriate as the task of working with fairy tales plays an important role as they create many affective moments and stimulate the imagination.
Figure 1. Collage of the German literary canon of fairy tales.
This study aims to forge a linkage between the folklore studies in Germany and India, particularly of the “peripheral” literatures from the Northeastern regions of India. It attempts to look into the similarities and dissimilarities in motives, characters, mysticism, and the various cultural connotations pertaining to both cultural groups. Since these two cultural groups are not known to be historically related, a comparative study helps to distinguish between culturally specific motifs—those shaped by the values, beliefs, and experiences unique to each culture—and universal motifs that appear across different cultures, reflecting common human themes and experiences.
The study also aims to explore the often-overlooked aspects of indigenous folktales, particularly those of marginalized cultures, and how they differ from the more widely studied folktales of majoritarian cultures. By comparing these two, the study highlights the disparities in the representation and preservation of cultural narratives. This approach provides fresh perspectives in German folklore studies and promotes academic exchanges between India and Germany, especially by examining lesser-known folktales from India.
2. Hypothesis
First, this research study posits that the portrayal of human life and the recurrence of specific motifs in the tales reveals notable similarities among different cultural groups with no historical connections, such as German and Kuki communities. These parallels demonstrate the universal dimensions of fairy and tribal tales, emphasizing shared human concerns, emotions, and aspirations. The second hypothesis suggests that the differences in tales arise from the distinctiveness of indigenous cultures compared to dominant or majoritarian traditions. These variations highlight how unique cultural environments shape narratives, reflecting localized customs, beliefs, and worldviews. Together, the hypotheses explore the interplay between universality and cultural specificity in the tales, enriching our understanding of their enduring relevance and adaptability.
3. Review of the Literature
3.1 Motives of Fairy Tales
All fairy and folktales each have a different problem that they should resolve, such as love between hero and heroine, or love between siblings, or the hatred of a stepmother. The tales feature talking animals, giants and fairies, prince and princesses as well as peasants and ordinary folk that give life to the stories. Through folktales children are given a glimpse into a world where reality and fantasy meet. Goodness is always rewarded, heroes and heroine live happily ever after, while villains are suitably punished. Through the generations, the story may change, but the core message remains the same.
3.2 What Structure and Form Do These Tales Follow?
Propp’s Morphology of the Folktale explores the basic plot components of tales to identify their simplest irreducible narrative elements.[8] He has identified thirty-one functions that the tales follow. For example, many fairy tales begin with an initial situation, which sets the stage for events to unfold. We can designate this element as the ‘initial situation,’ such as ‘One member of the family absents themselves from home.’ This is followed by the development of the story, where the hero discovers the problem, or gap, created by this absence. This leads to the hero’s departure on a mission or quest, which drives the narrative forward. Lastly, the villain is defeated and the hero returns home.
Max Luthi explores the characteristics of fairy tales, such as ‘one-dimensionality,’ where witchcraft, sorcery, and fairies seem to belong to the normal environment.[9] The characters in these tales are typically uncomplicated and lacking in psychological depth. They are good or bad. They follow an “abstract style”: the rooms, the dark forest, and the enchanted garden are not clearly described. These tales allow children to experience what they cannot attain in real life. For example, when the heroes are facing monsters, giants, dragons, and other evil forces, the stories may impart courage and wisdom in overcoming problems. It may sometimes frighten children, but at the same time the stories excite and comfort them.
3.3 What Role Do These Tales Play in Our Lives/Children Lives?
Bruno Bettelheim’s The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales, one of the most important books in the study of fairy tales, suggests that traditional fairy tales imbued with the darkness of abandonment, death, witches, and injuries allow children to grapple with their fears in symbolic terms, so that they can read and interpret them in their own way.[10] Freudian psychologist, Bettelheim believes that the mind is a repository of both conscious and unconscious elements. By definition, we are not aware of what we believe and how we act. The division of the mind into conscious and unconscious parts is true for children no less than for adults. For instance, Cinderella resolves her difficulties, and children hearing the story can resolve theirs as well. This is the unconscious message of the tales. Bettelheim uses Freudian psychology to analyze tales, stating, “Psychoanalysis itself is viewed as having the purpose of making life easy but this is not what its founder intended. Psychoanalysis was created to enable man to accept the problematic nature of life without being defeated by it. . . ”[11]
According to Jack Zipes, fairy tales serve a meaningful social function, not only for compensation but also for revelation. The worlds projected by the best of our fairy tales expose the gaps between truth and falsehood in society. Fairy tales are uncanny because they reveal what we need and help settle us by showing what we lack and how we might compensate for the lack. Zipes explains that tales offer us hope, even though they do not provide concrete proof or tangible solutions.[12]
Fairy tales begin with conflict because human lives begin with conflict. We are all misfits in the world, yet somehow we must all fit in: fit in with other people, and thus we must invent or find the means through communication to satisfy as well as resolve conflicting desires and instincts.[13]
4. Methodological Approach
Socio‐historians and folklorists maintain that each variant of a particular story has its own meaning within a given cultural context―interpretations of texts are determined by the cultural context in which they are formulated.[14] This study demonstrates how fairy and tribal tales suit the cultural reality of the community in which they are told, in German and Kuki society.
A comparison of tales from different societies offers the possibility of identifying and confirming shared elements in several ways—through distribution, structure, style, and content. [Distribution refers to how similar motifs, themes, or narrative patterns appear across different geographical regions or cultures, suggesting universal human concerns or cross-cultural exchanges. Structure relates to the underlying framework or sequence of events in the tales, while style focuses on the language, tone, and storytelling techniques employed. Content encompasses the specific themes, characters, and messages conveyed in the stories]. This author studied both oral and written material with reference to its social, historical, and religious background, and the interplay between literature and oral narrative. The findings and interpretation emerged out of the specific details of what the author observed. The research study attempts to obtain an in-depth understanding of the meanings and definitions of the situation and context presented in the tales of both the cultures.
As Tatar points out, “every rewriting of a tale is an interpretation; and every interpretation is a rewriting”[15]—any given tale will accrue a range of interpretations. Hence there are various approaches to the fairy tale and many diverse interpretations, but no single ‘correct’ interpretation. This study, therefore, deploys both the structuralist and psychoanalytic approaches.
First, the structuralists are interested in the underlying structural components of the folktale genre. A key aspect of Propp’s methodology is the analysis of the structure of folktales according to characters’ functions or spheres of action. The uniformity which Propp finds in fairy tale structure raises questions about the origins and meanings of tales. An implication of Propp’s findings is that all folktales express the same thing, opening the way for assertions of universal ahistorical meanings. Propp acknowledges the cultural context of the folktale. Propp’s work has a formative influence on the methodologies used in fairy tale research. His methodology can be usefully combined with other literary approaches that study the ways in which texts construct meaning, as well as with more ideologically driven analyses that explore the influence of social, historical, and cultural contexts on the evolution and adaptation of folktale variants and their possible reversion to earlier or traditional forms.
Second, psychoanalytic approaches to the fairytale emphasize their symbolism. For Freudians, such as Bettelheim, fairy tales are expressions of individual psychological development as they deal with universal human problems. According to Bettelheim, fairy tales contain symbolic images which reflect inner psychic processes and which, in so far as these processes are common to all children, enable children to externalize and work through their psychological problems.[16] By contextualizing his Freudian analyses of the fairy tale within an ideology of childhood and human existence which sees the Oedipal myth as paramount, this myth functions in Bettelheim’s work as a metanarrative which structures both child development and the fairy tale.
5. Major Themes and Tropes in Fairy Tales
5.1 Polarization, Symbolism, and Restoration of Order
Fairy and tribal tales frequently employ polarizations, presenting characters and traits as binaries: poor or rich, good or bad, beautiful or ugly, brave or cowardly, the stark contrast simplifying moral dilemmas and reinforcing the clear delineation of right and wrong, making the tales particularly effective for teaching moral lessons. Notably, positive attributes are often associated with characters of humble origins. Actions, locations, props, and colors are stereotypical and imbued with symbolic meaning, reinforcing the narrative’s themes.
At their essence, the tales depict the disruption and eventual restoration of a natural order, in a cyclical structure mirroring the human desire for balance and justice, providing reassurance that even amidst chaos, harmony can be restored. Whether it is a forest symbolizing danger and transformation, a stepmother embodying conflict, or animals serving as guides, the tales resonate with universal themes that transcend cultural boundaries.
5.2 Concept of Happiness and Sadness in German and Kuki Fairy Tales
Generally, in fairy tales, when there is sadness, there is always a happy ever after or a great ending, and there is also a lesson one can learn after reading or listening to a fairy tale. Life in fairy tales often seems unfair and cruel, but still retains some kind of internal logic. Without a doubt, happy endings are the most popular elements of fairy tales. After facing all possible and impossible troubles in the world, the heroine/hero of a fairy tale in most cases defeats the enemy, achieves their goal and lives happily ever after. But in some stories one can find sad endings as well. Fairy tales’ ability to oscillate between sadness and joy makes them versatile tools for teaching resilience. For instance, the deep emotional struggles of characters like Hansel and Gretel or Cinderella[17] mirror real-life adversities, and their eventual triumphs offer solace and guidance. The emotional interplay is the reason why fairy tales endure across generations. On a deeper level, by reading fairy tales and realizing that these characters are facing problems that seem impossible to overcome—and then conquer them—children and adults can find the courage and vigor to face challenges in life and hope that everything will work out in the end.
5.3 Challenges and Triumphs
The forests and woods in fairy tales symbolize confusion, danger, and transformation. In the German tale Hansel and Gretel,[18] as well as the Kuki tale Dapa Chon[19] (The Great Success Achieved by the Hero, Dapa) the characters are abandoned in forests, forced to face their fears and develop ingenuity. While Hansel and Gretel find their way home through breadcrumbs, Dapa in the Kuki tale uses clever tactics to outsmart a demon. These settings, such as the dark forest, act as a metaphor for life’s unpredictable challenges, teaching readers that perseverance, resourcefulness, and courage can help overcome even the darkest circumstances.
5.4 Maternal Absence and Emotional Growth
In many fairy tales, the story begins with the death of the mother, such as in Cinderella, telling us about the emotional state of a child who experiences the lack of maternal closeness, either because the mother is actually not present or because the mother cannot muster the explicit maternal influence. The effects of fairy tales like Cinderella can have a lasting impact into adulthood, particularly in shaping how women view themselves and their roles in society. The image of Cinderella embodies themes of poverty, neglect, and powerlessness. She is portrayed as unloved, lacking the strength to stand up for herself, and relegated to a lowly position in life—symbolized by her place among the ashes, which represent humiliation, poverty, and neglect. These themes may influence a woman’s sense of self-worth, leading her to internalize feelings of inadequacy or a belief that she is destined for an inferior role, affecting her confidence and ability to assert herself in adulthood. One day, a fairy uses a spell to turn Cinderella’s rags into a beautiful dress so she could go to the royal ball. At the ball, Cinderella meets the prince, who falls in love at first sight. But after she disappears at midnight, the prince starts a search for her: he finally finds her, they marry and live happily ever after.
The Kuki tale Khupting le Ngambom[20] (The Heroine Khupting and the Hero Ngambom) has a tragic ending, which revolves around broken promises. The tale emphasizes the moral lesson that when promises are made and not kept, it leads to loss. In this story, Khupting dies because the mother’s promises could not be fulfilled, which highlights the consequences of unkept vows. Kuki tales, like Khupting and Ngambom, not only reinforce cultural beliefs, customs, and rituals but also offer an outlet for the community’s dreams and desires. The tale is characterized by magical elements and portrays the deep love and yearning between a girl, who loses her life on earth, and her living lover. After their death, the immortal lovers meet each other in the heavenly abode once again.[21] It reflects a Kuki belief in the afterlife, that even if they do not meet or fulfill their relationship in the earthly world, they will still meet in another world, demonstrating a way to keep hope alive.
5.5 The Theme of “the Problem”
Every tale presents a trouble or a crisis in an open or hidden form, the problem ranging from familial conflicts, such as the loss of a parent or sibling rivalry, to societal pressures, and personal struggles. For instance, many tales begin with the death of the mother, followed by the arrival of a stepmother or other adversarial figures, like in Cinderella or Snow White.[22] These inherent problems force the protagonists to navigate their emotions and challenges to emerge stronger.
Fairy tales also often depict existential crises like the fear of abandonment (Hansel and Gretel), poverty (The Fisherman and His Wife),[23] or betrayal (Rumpelstiltskin).[24] Such crises resonate universally as they reflect human fears and struggles. The resolution of these crises—whether through cleverness, perseverance, or external assistance—reinforces the idea that even seemingly insurmountable challenges can be overcome.
Interestingly, these tales do not focus solely on the dichotomy of good versus evil but explore the nuances of human behavior. For example, the stepmother’s jealousy in Snow White or the witch’s cunning in Rapunzel[25] are not merely “evil” traits, but manifestations of insecurity and desire for control. This complexity adds layers to the narrative, making fairy tales as much a mirror of society as they are moral guides.
Moreover, the recurrence of similar crises across cultures, such as abandonment in Hansel and Gretel and Dapa Chon, highlights the universal nature of human struggle. It also suggests that the tales are less about escapism and more about providing hope, resilience, and strategies for real-life problems.
5.6 Love in Many Shapes
Love plays a multifaceted role in fairy tales, encompassing romantic love, familial bonds, and even self-love. Romantic love often serves as a reward for virtue and perseverance, as seen in Cinderella, where the prince’s love redeems her from her life of servitude. Similarly, in Sleeping Beauty,[26] a true love’s kiss breaks the curse, symbolizing the triumph of love over darkness and despair. Sibling love, on the other hand, shows solidarity and mutual support. In Hansel and Gretel, the siblings’ unwavering bond enables them to outwit the witch and find their way home. This dynamic teaches the importance of cooperation and trust in overcoming challenges.
Fairy tales also explore the consequences of unfulfilled love, as seen in Khupting le Ngambom. The tale reflects the pain of separation and the hope of reunion, even in the afterlife, suggesting that love transcends earthly boundaries. This belief in the endurance of love resonates deeply within Kuki community, emphasizing the cultural significance of love as a binding force.
Additionally, fairy tales subtly address the idea of self-love and self-worth. For instance, in Beauty and the Beast,[27] Beauty learns to look beyond appearances and recognize the Beast’s inner virtues, highlighting the importance of compassion and understanding in forming meaningful relationships. These narratives demonstrate that love, in its many forms, is not only a driving force in the plot but also a critical element in teaching moral lessons and fostering emotional resilience.
5.7 Teaching Moral Values
Fairy tales are not children’s stories: they are stories which teach children, adolescents, and adults how society is regulated. In fairy tales, social norms are conveyed on the basis of catchy examples.[28] For example, in Cinderella, the protagonist’s unwavering goodness and humility eventually leads to her happiness, teaching the moral that virtue and integrity are always rewarded. Hansel and Gretel were able to conquer themselves and overcome their obstacles. The experience was necessary to help the children mature, and rely on their own intelligence and initiative to solve life’s problems. As moral stories impart moral values and virtues, most parents read them to their children so they grow up to be honest, courageous, and smart enough to face life. These stories, heard during childhood, help mold a child into a generous person. In Cinderella, the message is that by being a good person with a good heart you will always get what you want.
Similarly, the tale Khupting le Ngambom offers different interpretations—whether it ends tragically or happily—highlighting the theme that when promises are broken, everything is lost. The story emphasizes the moral lesson that unfulfilled promises can lead to severe consequences. In this case, Khupting dies because the mothers cannot keep their promises. In the tale, both mothers—Khupting’s mother and Ngambom’s mother—play pivotal roles. They make promises about the union of the two lovers, but circumstances prevent them from fulfilling their vows. This failure ultimately leads to Khupting’s death, highlighting the moral consequences of broken promises and the importance of keeping one’s word.
So one can see, it is the mothers who are responsible for the broken promises. Many fairy tales carry strong moral messages to help people learn important lessons. In Khupting le Ngambom, although Khupting dies, the story doesn’t end there. It concludes with Khupting and Ngambom being reunited after both have passed away, reflecting the Kuki belief in life after death. The Kukis’ social history is deeply rooted in valor, integrity, sanctity, and unrelenting commitment to the cause of integral relationships. One such relationship of ‘romance’ existed, as legend passed down, between Ngambom and Khupting. Young and old irrespective of social positions shed tears uncontrollably when the epic love story is retold in the family hearths, workplaces (fields), or during sojourns.
Lenchonghoi le Khalvompu is a Kuki tale centered around the beautiful and virtuous Lenchonghoi who attracts the attention of Khalvompu, a powerful and mythical creature. Khalvompu desires Lenchonghoi’s beauty, but she is protected by her seven brothers, who fear the creature’s intentions. The story begins when Khalvompu, unable to control his desire for Lenchonghoi, sets out to capture her. Despite his strength and magical abilities, he is thwarted by the efforts of her brothers, who work together to safeguard their sister. The tale reflects themes of family loyalty, protection, and the power of unity in the face of overwhelming challenges. The brothers’ heroic actions ultimately prevent Khalvompu from claiming Lenchonghoi, but the narrative also explores the emotional and psychological complexities of the characters involved, especially Khalvompu’s longing and Lenchonghoi’s role as the object of his desire. The story ends with the brothers’ triumph and Lenchongho’s safety, but it underscores the tension between desire and virtue, and the lengths to which family members will go to protect one another.
Singcha is a Kuki tale about a human boy named Singcha, who is adopted by a werewolf as a baby. The werewolf, seeking to eventually consume him, raises Singcha as its own child. However, despite its dark intent, Singcha grows up unaware of his true origins. As he matures, he becomes a strong and brave young man. The story unfolds as Singcha begins to suspect that something is amiss with his upbringing, leading him to uncover the werewolf’s sinister plan. The tale follows Singcha’s journey as he confronts the werewolf and strives to break free from its grasp, using his strength and intelligence. The characters in the story include Singcha, the adopted human boy, who symbolizes courage, resilience, and the desire to escape danger, and the werewolf, which represents a powerful and cunning force of nature with dark intentions. The story emphasizes themes of survival, betrayal, and the struggle for freedom, with Singcha ultimately overcoming the werewolf and seeking a new path in life. The story’s conclusion reinforces the idea of human strength and resourcefulness in the face of evil and deception.
Figure 2. Collage of the Kuki canon of tribal tales.
Moreover, fairy tales often reinforce the idea that actions have consequences. Characters who display greed, cruelty, or dishonesty often face dire outcomes as seen in Rumpelstiltskin or The Fisherman and His Wife. These cautionary elements serve as lessons in ethics and decision-making, encouraging audiences to reflect on their own behavior.
Demonstrably, fairy tales often follow a similar structure, particularly the ‘happy ending’ that is common across the genre. While the situations may differ, the underlying functions of fairy tales remain consistent when broken down into their components. Psychologists like Freud and Bettelheim, using psychoanalysis, have analyzed the hidden elements within fairy tales, such as repressed desires, unconscious fears, and internal conflicts. This method allows for the interpretation of deep emotional and psychological aspects of individuals. Fairy tales are rich in symbols—such as the wicked stepmother, the magical helper, or the transformation of characters—that can be uncovered and understood through psychoanalytic interpretation.
6. Conclusion
This study explores the comparative dimensions of German and Kuki fairy tales by analyzing their structures, motifs, and psychological underpinnings. Through the application of Vladimir Propp’s structuralist approach and Bruno Bettelheim’s psychoanalytic theories, this article has delved into the universal and culturally specific elements of these narratives. Both theoretical frameworks have provided a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between the internal psychological needs and external cultural expressions embedded within fairy tales.
Fairy tales from diverse cultural groups, such as the German and Kuki traditions, reveal striking similarities in their portrayal of universal human experiences. These include crises, challenges, and resolutions, often conveyed through symbolic motifs. The study demonstrates that while fairy tales share common structures and moral lessons—such as hope, perseverance, and the triumph of good over evil—they also retain distinctive features reflective of their cultural origins. German tales, often influenced by majoritarian European norms, contrast with the unique perspectives offered by the indigenous Kuki narratives, which integrate mysticism and specific cultural connotations.
For example, in Cinderella, the narrative follows a universal structure of an oppressed protagonist overcoming adversity, aided by supernatural intervention. Similarly, the Kuki tale Lenchonghoi le Khalvompu (Lenchonghoi and Khalvompu) mirrors this structure, where the protagonist receives supernatural assistance in overcoming familial and societal challenges. Both stories emphasize the theme of resilience and transformation, common elements in fairy tales worldwide. Yet, while Cinderella focuses on the importance of virtue, kindness, and the eventual reward for good behavior, Lenchonghoi highlights themes of fate and the powerful influence of the supernatural in Kuki culture, showing the different ways in which supernatural forces operate in these two distinct traditions.
The hypotheses examined in this research article highlight the dual nature of fairy tales: their universality and cultural specificity. Universal aspects, such as shared motifs of love, familial bonds, and moral justice, underscore the commonalities in human storytelling across societies. For instance, in both Hansel and Gretel and Snow White, the recurring motif of familial betrayal is depicted through the figure of the wicked stepmother. This character is present in many Kuki tales as well, such as in Khupting le Ngambom, where broken promises and betrayal lead to tragic consequences. In both traditions, the breakdown of trust between parents and children serves as a central conflict that the protagonists must overcome.
Conversely, our understanding of how indigenous and majoritarian narratives diverge is enriched by the cultural differences in themes, characters, and resolutions, as they offer unique insights into localized values and beliefs. The figure of the wicked stepmother in German fairy tales, for example, reflects social concerns related to family dynamics and social hierarchies.
In Kuki tales, the theme of unkept promises or betrayal is often deeply intertwined with spiritual and ancestral beliefs. These tales suggest that breaking promises or failing to keep one’s word can have severe, sometimes tragic, consequences, not just in the physical world but also in the spiritual realm. In Khupting le Ngambom, the heroine’s death is directly linked to the unfulfilled promises made by her mothers. The tale illustrates that the mothers, bound by tradition and familial duty, had made solemn vows that they were unable to keep. Their failure to fulfill their promises results in Khupting’s tragic death, emphasizing the significance of keeping one’s word and the potential spiritual consequences when promises, especially those made to family and ancestors, are not honored. The moral of the story underscores the importance of trust, loyalty, and the sacredness of promises within Kuki culture, where the spiritual and material worlds are closely connected.
The role of fairy tales in children’s lives has been a focal point of this research. Beyond entertainment, these tales serve as tools for moral instruction, emotional development, and cultural continuity. By addressing fundamental life challenges through fantastical solutions, fairy tales provide psychological reassurance and stimulate imagination, making them timeless companions for both children and adults. For example, in The Golden Goose from the German tradition, the protagonist’s virtuous nature is rewarded despite his humble beginnings.[29] This not only teaches children the value of honesty and kindness but also reassures them that good behavior will eventually be rewarded. Similarly, in the Kuki tale, Singcha, the protagonist’s unwavering commitment to doing what is right leads to his success, offering a message of moral fortitude and the importance of integrity.
This comparative study not only enhances our understanding of German and Kuki folklore but also contributes to the broader field of folklore studies. By examining peripheral and indigenous narratives alongside dominant traditions, the research study broadens academic discourse, fostering cross-cultural dialogue between Germany and India. Moreover, it underscores the need to include and preserve indigenous stories in global folklore studies, providing a platform for lesser-known traditions and voices. The unique perspectives provided by Kuki fairy tales, such as Dapa Chon, Khupting le Ngambom, Lenchonghoi le Khalvompu , and Singcha, add a rich layer to the global conversation on fairy tales, highlighting the diversity of human experience and cultural values.
In conclusion, fairy tales remain an integral part of human culture, reflecting shared aspirations and diverse expressions. They continue to connect us across time and geography, offering valuable insights into both our collective humanity and our cultural uniqueness. This research study affirms that by examining the intersections of universality and specificity, we can deepen our appreciation for the rich tapestry of stories that define our world. The comparative approach adopted here not only fosters a deeper understanding of the similarities and differences between German and Kuki fairy tales but also emphasizes the importance of preserving and celebrating the diversity of global folklore.
Nengpinem Haokip is a dedicated researcher specializing in folklore studies with a particular focus on the comparative analysis of fairy tales across cultures. She has recently submitted her doctoral dissertation, Motives, Structures, and Meanings: A Comparative Study of German and Kuki Fairy Tales, which explores the structural and psychological dimensions of German and Kuki fairy tales. This research study highlights universal motifs and cultural uniqueness embedded within these narratives, offering valuable insights into their societal and moral significance. She has published several research papers in prominent journals, including: “Psychoanalytische Interpretation der Märchen, Aschenputtel,” International Research Journal, October 2024; “Psychoanalytische Interpretation der Märchen‚ Hänsel und Gretel,” German as a Foreign Language; and “Die Analyse des Romans Momo: Züge einer Großstadt im Kontext von Georg Simmels Text‚ Die Großstädte und das Geistesleben,” German Studies in India, Vol. 2, October 2024.
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[1] Max Lüthi, The European Folktale: Form and Nature, translated by John D. Niles (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1982).
[2] Max Lüthi, Märchen, 10 Aufl. (Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, 1962), 10.
[3] Stith Thompson, The Folktale (New York: The Dryden Press, 1946), 8.
[4] Max Lüthi, Das VolksmärchenalsDichtung, Aesthetik und Anthropologie (Düsseldorf, Köln: Diederichs, 1975), 8.
[5] Brüder Grimm, Kinder-und Hausmärchen (Stuttgart: Philipp Reclam, June, 1984). Also see, Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, The Illustrated Treasury of Children’s Literature, ed. Margaret E. Martignoni (New York: Crosset and Dunlap, 1955).
[6] Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales (New York: Vintage Books, 1976).
[7] Vladimir Propp, Morphology of the Folktale, second edition., trans. Laurence Scott (Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1968).
[8] Ibid.
[9] See these works by Max Lüthi: Märchen, 10 Aufl. (Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, 1962); Das Volksmärchenals Dichtung, Aesthetik und Anthropologie (Düsseldorf, Köln: Diederichs, 1975); Psychologie und Pädagogik in Märchen (Stuttgart: Grin Verlag, 1977); The European Folktale: Form and Nature, trans. John D. Niles (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1982); The Fairytale as Art Form and Portrait of Man, translated by Jon Erickson (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984); and On the Nature of Fairy Tales (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1970).
[10] Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales (New York: Vintage Books, 1976,) 12.
[11] Ibid., 8.
[12] Jack Zipes, The Irresistible Fairy Tale: The Cultural and Social History of a Genre (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2012), 102.
[13] Jack Zipes, Why Fairy Tales Stick (New York: Routledge, 2006), 153.
[14] Robyn McCallum, “Approaches to the Literary Fairytale,” in Jack Zipes (ed), The Oxford Companion to Fairytales (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 17-21.
[15] Maria Tatar, Off With Their Heads: Fairy Tales and the Culture of Childhood (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992), xxvi.
[16] Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment, 17.
[17] Brüder Grimm, Kinder- und Hausmärchen, Band 1. 7. Auflage (Göttingen: Dieterichschen Buchhandlung, 1857), 104.
[18] Ibid., 72.
[19] Thadou-Kuki Literature (Class – ix, x), Thimthu le Jaila (Manipur: Thadou-Kuki Literature Society, 2009), 31.
[20] Ibid., 21.
[21] Tarun Goswami, Kuki Life and Lore (Haflong: North Cachar Hills District Council, 1985), ii, iii.
[22] Grimm, Kinder- und Hausmärchen, 228.
[23] Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, The Illustrated Treasury of Children’s Literature, edited by Margaret E. Martignoni (New York: Crosset and Dunlap, 1955), 62.
[24] Ibid., 255.
[25] Grimm, Kinder- und Hausmärchen, 60.
[26] Ibid., 54.
[27] Zipes, Why Fairy Tales Stick, 105.
[28] Lüthi, Märchen, 78.
[29] Grimm, Kinder- und Hausmärchen.